Phosphate Solubilising bacteria - Mass cultivation
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This document discusses the mass production of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) as biofertilizers. It outlines that PSB solubilize insoluble phosphate in soil through organic acid production. Common organic acids produced by PSB include gluconic acid, 2-ketogluconic acid, and mixtures of lactic, isovaleric, isobutyric and acetic acids. The document describes methods for isolating, screening, and mass producing PSB using proper media, carriers like peat and compost, and fermentation. Carriers are chosen based on high organic matter content, moisture holding capacity, and low soluble salt levels.
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Isolation of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) from soil Likhith K
A number of bacterial species provide beneficial effects to a plant and these are mostly present in rhizosphere and hence called rhizobacteria. This group of bacteria has been termed plant growth promoting rhizobacteria. Phosphorus is an essential element for plant development and growth making up about 0.2 % of plant dry weight. Plants acquire P from soil solution as phosphate anions. However, phosphate anions are extremely reactive and may be immobilized through precipitation with cations such as Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Fe 3+ and Al 3+. In these forms, P is highly insoluble and unavailable to plants. Different bacterial species has ability to solubilize insoluble inorganic phosphate compounds, such as tricalcium phosphate, di calcium phosphate, hydroxyapatite, and rock phosphate to soluble form, Hence theses bacteria's are referred to as phosphate solubilizing bacteria.
Phosphate solubilizers
This document discusses plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and their ability to solubilize inorganic phosphate. Some key points:
- PGPR are bacteria that live in the rhizosphere and provide benefits to plants. An important function is solubilizing insoluble phosphate minerals making phosphorus available for plant uptake.
- Common insoluble phosphates include tricalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, and hydroxyapatite. Bacteria secrete organic acids like lactic acid and acetic acid to solubilize these minerals.
- Successful phosphate solubilizing bacteria include species from Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Rhizobium genera. Screening methods involve checking for clearing zones
Saif ppt phosphate solubilisation
Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSM) such as bacteria and fungi play an important role in solubilizing insoluble phosphate in soil and making it available to plants. PSM secrete organic acids and enzymes that lower soil pH and chelate cations, converting insoluble phosphate into soluble forms that plants can absorb. While phosphorus is essential for plant growth, much of the phosphorus in soil is unavailable to plants; PSM help address phosphorus deficiency by increasing the soluble phosphorus content of soil. Further research is needed to develop methods for commercializing PSM as biofertilizers to provide a more sustainable alternative to inorganic phosphate fertilizers.
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Types of biofertilizers
1. The document discusses various types of biofertilizers including Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Blue Green Algae, Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria, and organic matter decomposers.
2. It describes how each works to fix atmospheric nitrogen, solubilize phosphorus, or decompose organic matter to improve soil fertility and enhance crop growth.
3. The advantages of biofertilizers are that they can replace chemical fertilizers, are pollution free, and help increase crop productivity while maintaining soil health.
PHOSPHATE SOLUBILIZERS by Pranzly.ppt
PHOSPHATE SOLUBILIZERS
INTRODUCTION
Phosphate SOLUBILIZERS are a group of beneficial micro-organisms capable of breaking down of organic and inorganic insoluble phosphorous compounds to soluble P form that can easily be assimilated by plants.
Phosphorous (P) is a major growth-limiting nutrient, Plants acquire phosphorus from soil solution as phosphate anion.
TYPES
MECHANISM
ISOLATION
INOCULANT PRODUCTION
INOCULANT APPLICATION
ROLE OF PHOSPHATE SOLUBILIZERS
Rhizobium
It is a biofertilizer that contains symbiotic Rhizobium bacteria which is the most important nitrogen-fixing organism. These organisms have the ability to drive atmospheric Nitrogen and provide it to plants. It is recommended for crops such as Groundnut, Soybean, Red-gram, Green-gram, Black-gram, Lentil, Cowpea, Bengal-gram and Fodder legumes, etc.
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Mass production of blue green algae and Azolla can be done through several methods including the trough method, pit method, field method, and polythene lined method. Azolla can also be mass produced and both blue green algae and Azolla have applications in paddy fields as they can be used to increase soil fertility and rice yields.
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Isolation of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) from soil Likhith K
A number of bacterial species provide beneficial effects to a plant and these are mostly present in rhizosphere and hence called rhizobacteria. This group of bacteria has been termed plant growth promoting rhizobacteria. Phosphorus is an essential element for plant development and growth making up about 0.2 % of plant dry weight. Plants acquire P from soil solution as phosphate anions. However, phosphate anions are extremely reactive and may be immobilized through precipitation with cations such as Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Fe 3+ and Al 3+. In these forms, P is highly insoluble and unavailable to plants. Different bacterial species has ability to solubilize insoluble inorganic phosphate compounds, such as tricalcium phosphate, di calcium phosphate, hydroxyapatite, and rock phosphate to soluble form, Hence theses bacteria's are referred to as phosphate solubilizing bacteria.
Phosphate solubilizers
This document discusses plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and their ability to solubilize inorganic phosphate. Some key points:
- PGPR are bacteria that live in the rhizosphere and provide benefits to plants. An important function is solubilizing insoluble phosphate minerals making phosphorus available for plant uptake.
- Common insoluble phosphates include tricalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, and hydroxyapatite. Bacteria secrete organic acids like lactic acid and acetic acid to solubilize these minerals.
- Successful phosphate solubilizing bacteria include species from Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Rhizobium genera. Screening methods involve checking for clearing zones
Saif ppt phosphate solubilisation
Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSM) such as bacteria and fungi play an important role in solubilizing insoluble phosphate in soil and making it available to plants. PSM secrete organic acids and enzymes that lower soil pH and chelate cations, converting insoluble phosphate into soluble forms that plants can absorb. While phosphorus is essential for plant growth, much of the phosphorus in soil is unavailable to plants; PSM help address phosphorus deficiency by increasing the soluble phosphorus content of soil. Further research is needed to develop methods for commercializing PSM as biofertilizers to provide a more sustainable alternative to inorganic phosphate fertilizers.
plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
This document discusses plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). It begins by defining PGPR as beneficial bacteria that colonize plant roots and promote plant growth. It then covers the classification, characteristics, and mechanisms of action of PGPR, including direct mechanisms like nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, and phytohormone production as well as indirect mechanisms like siderophore production and induced systemic resistance. The document also discusses the roles, commercialization, and importance of PGPR as biofertilizers for sustainable agriculture.
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1. The document discusses various types of biofertilizers including Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Blue Green Algae, Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria, and organic matter decomposers.
2. It describes how each works to fix atmospheric nitrogen, solubilize phosphorus, or decompose organic matter to improve soil fertility and enhance crop growth.
3. The advantages of biofertilizers are that they can replace chemical fertilizers, are pollution free, and help increase crop productivity while maintaining soil health.
PHOSPHATE SOLUBILIZERS by Pranzly.ppt
PHOSPHATE SOLUBILIZERS
INTRODUCTION
Phosphate SOLUBILIZERS are a group of beneficial micro-organisms capable of breaking down of organic and inorganic insoluble phosphorous compounds to soluble P form that can easily be assimilated by plants.
Phosphorous (P) is a major growth-limiting nutrient, Plants acquire phosphorus from soil solution as phosphate anion.
TYPES
MECHANISM
ISOLATION
INOCULANT PRODUCTION
INOCULANT APPLICATION
ROLE OF PHOSPHATE SOLUBILIZERS
Rhizobium
It is a biofertilizer that contains symbiotic Rhizobium bacteria which is the most important nitrogen-fixing organism. These organisms have the ability to drive atmospheric Nitrogen and provide it to plants. It is recommended for crops such as Groundnut, Soybean, Red-gram, Green-gram, Black-gram, Lentil, Cowpea, Bengal-gram and Fodder legumes, etc.
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phosphatesolubilizers.pptx
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plant growth but is often limited in soils. Phosphate solubilizing bacteria can aid in making phosphorus more available to plants. They release organic acids and phosphatases that solubilize insoluble phosphate compounds in soil into plant-available forms. This process allows plants to better acquire phosphorus for growth and reproduction. These bacteria are found in soil and can be selected for use as biofertilizers to enhance phosphorus availability and promote plant growth.
Tissue culture media preparation.ppt
Plant tissue culture media contain essential nutritional components to support in vitro plant growth. These include macro and micro nutrients, iron, vitamins, carbon sources, organic nitrogen, and a gelling agent. The Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium is commonly used and contains specific concentrations of ammonium nitrate, potassium nitrate, calcium chloride, magnesium sulfate, potassium phosphate, micronutrients, iron-EDTA, vitamins, sucrose, and agar. Plant growth regulators like auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins are also added to influence cell growth and differentiation. The media is prepared under sterile conditions and its pH is adjusted to 5-5.8 for successful tissue culture.
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This document summarizes technologies for removing nitrogen and phosphorus from wastewater. It discusses the problems caused by nutrient pollution in waterways and outlines biological and chemical solutions. Key points include: nitrification and denitrification can remove nitrogen through autotrophic and heterotrophic bacteria; enhanced biological phosphorus removal uses phosphorus-accumulating organisms; and chemical precipitation uses metal salts like aluminum and iron to remove phosphorus by forming insoluble phosphates. The document also provides details on nitrogen and phosphorus levels in domestic sewage and the nitrogen transformation process in biological treatment systems.
Biofertilizers increases prodactivity_PPT.ppt
Till 1997-98 strong correlation is found between Fertilizer consumption and food grains production
After 1997-98, this relationship distorted
Most of States are experiencing increase in fertilizer consumption with slower pace of crop productivity
Some states witness consumption of fertilizer picking up without any conspicuous gain on agricultural crop productivity
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Mechanism of Zinc solubilization by Zinc Solubilizing bacterias
M.Sc. Credit Seminar
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PRODUCTION TECHNOLGY FOR BIOAGENTS AND BIOFERTILISZER
WHAT IS BIOFERTILISER? ITS USE ,
HOW TO MAKE?
BENEFITS OF BIOFERTILIZER
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
CROP PRODUCTIVITY
TYPES
WORK
PHOSPHATE SOLUBILIZING BACTERIA
PIKOVSKAYA BROTH NEDIUM
role of bio.pptx
Biofertilizers are living microorganisms that help fix atmospheric nitrogen, solubilize phosphorus, and stimulate plant growth. When applied to seeds, soil, or seedlings, they can increase crop yields while reducing the need for chemical fertilizers. Common biofertilizers used in vegetable production include Rhizobium, Azotobacter, phosphate solubilizing bacteria, and mycorrhizal fungi. Studies show that biofertilizer application can increase yields of crops like okra, brinjal, chilli, cauliflower, tomato, potato, and French beans compared to chemical fertilizers alone.
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Minerals are essential inorganic nutrients that are required for plant and animal growth and development. There are two types of minerals: macronutrients which are needed in large amounts, and micronutrients which are needed in trace amounts. Hydroponics experiments showed that specific mineral salts are required to support plant growth. Minerals play important roles such as being components of biomolecules, providing energy, and activating enzymes. Some minerals like nitrogen must be obtained from the environment through nitrogen-fixing bacteria that form nodules on plant roots and convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia. Legumes have a symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium bacteria in their root nodules to fix nitrogen.
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The document discusses biofertilizers, which are preparations containing living microorganisms that help crop plants uptake nutrients. It describes various types of biofertilizers like nitrogen fixing bacteria, phosphate solubilizers, potassium solubilizers, mycorrhizal fungi, and their mechanisms and benefits. The document also discusses mass production and application of biofertilizers for organic farming to ensure food security while protecting the environment.
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NUTRIENT CYCLE.pptx
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Nitrogen cycle.ppt
Nitrogen is a key nutrient for plants but it exists primarily as inert nitrogen gas in the atmosphere. The nitrogen cycle describes the process by which nitrogen is converted between various chemical forms as it moves between the atmosphere, soil, organisms, and various environmental reservoirs. Key steps in the nitrogen cycle include nitrogen fixation by bacteria, nitrification of ammonia to nitrites then nitrates, assimilation of nitrogen by plants and animals, ammonification of organic nitrogen waste by decomposers, and denitrification of nitrates back to nitrogen gas. The nitrogen cycle is essential for providing plants with nitrogen needed for growth while enriching soils with nutrients.
Psychobiotics
Psychobiotics refers to live bacteria that may provide mental health benefits by affecting the microbiota in the host's gut-brain axis. Common psychobiotics used in research include Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus families of gram-positive bacteria, which are less likely to cause an immunological response. Specific psychobiotics like Lactobacillus rhamnosus have been shown to lower anxiety and reduce obsessive-compulsive disorder. Probiotic foods high in beneficial bacteria include yogurt, kimchi, kefir and sauerkraut. Research suggests psychobiotics may reduce stress hormones, stimulate the vagus nerve, and increase neurotrophic factors to help treat anxiety disorders.
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The document describes how to calculate the concentration of an RNA stock solution given absorbance measurements of a diluted sample. It explains that an absorbance of 1.0 at 260nm corresponds to 40 μg/mL of RNA. It then shows the calculations to determine that a diluted sample with an absorbance of 0.142 corresponds to 5.7 μg/mL, and that multiplying this by the dilution factor of 1000/40 gives a stock concentration of 142.5 μg/mL.
Burst size
The burst size experiment involved infecting 2 x 108 cells with phage at an MOI of 0.1. Unadsorbed phage were removed and infected cells were incubated for 90 minutes. 200 infective centers (ICs) were counted initially. After incubation, 150 plaques were counted, corresponding to 3 x 109 PFU/ml. The burst size was calculated as the PFUs released (3 x 109 PFU/ml) divided by the original ICs (2 x 107 ICs/ml), which is 150 PFUs/IC.
Diluting bacteriophage
A phage stock with a concentration of 2.5 x 109 PFU/ml needs to be diluted to give approximately 500 plaques on a plate. To calculate the required dilution factor, the researcher sets up an equation relating the original phage concentration, desired plaque count, and dilution factor. Solving the equation reveals the stock must be diluted 2 x 10-7 times. The document then shows example dilutions and volumes that would achieve this dilution factor.
Measuring phage titer
A series of dilutions were performed on a bacteriophage stock to determine its titer. The stock was diluted through four successive 10-fold dilutions. After plating 0.1 mL from the final dilution, 180 plaques were counted. Using the dilution factor of 1x10-8 mL and the formula that divides the number of plaques by the dilution factor, the titer of the original bacteriophage stock was calculated to be 1.8 x 1010 PFU/mL.
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This document provides instructions for calculating the concentration of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) in micrograms per milliliter (μg/mL). It explains that an optical density (OD) reading of 1 at 260nm corresponds to 33 μg/mL of ssDNA. It then works through an example calculation where M13mp18 DNA diluted 10 μL into 1000 μL has an OD of 0.125, corresponding to a concentration of 4.125 μg/mL. To determine the original stock concentration, this value is multiplied by the dilution factor of 1000 μL/10 μL, giving a concentration of 412.5 μg/mL for the M13mp18 DNA stock solution.
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This document summarizes the formula for calculating the concentration of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) based on its absorption at 260nm. The formula, known as Beer's Law, states that absorption at 260nm (A260) equals the extinction coefficient at 260nm (E260) multiplied by the concentration (c) and light path length (l). For dsDNA, the extinction coefficient is 20 for a 1mg/mL solution and 1cm light path length. Two examples are provided to demonstrate calculating DNA concentration in μg/mL from a given A260 value using this formula and extinction coefficient.
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The document describes how to calculate the multiplicity of infection (MOI) for an experiment using E. coli and bacteriophage. It shows that a 0.25 mL aliquot of E. coli culture containing 2 x 108 cells requires 0.05 mL of a bacteriophage stock with a concentration of 2 x 109 phage/mL to achieve an MOI of 0.5. The calculation involves determining the number of cells, calculating the number of phage needed based on the MOI and cell count, and then calculating the volume of stock solution required to provide that number of phage.
Multiplicity of infection
The document discusses the calculation of multiplicity of infection (moi), which is the ratio of bacteriophages to host cells at the initial stage of infection. Too high or too low of an moi can impact the infection process. The document then provides an example calculation where 0.1 mL of a phage stock containing 4 x 109 phage/mL is added to 0.5 mL of E. coli cells at 2 x 108 cells/mL. It calculates the total number of phage and cells, then divides the phage by the cells to determine the moi is 4 phage/cell.
Stock solution calculation
To prepare 300ml of 1x TAE buffer solution from a 50x stock solution, calculate the volume of stock solution needed using the formula C1V1=C2V2. Plugging in 50x for C1, 1x for C2, 300ml for V2 gives a value of 6ml for V1, the volume of 50x stock solution required. Take 6ml of the 50x TAE stock solution and dilute it with deionized water to a total volume of 300ml to obtain the desired 1x TAE buffer solution.
Transposons
Transposons are segments of DNA that can move from one location in the genome to another. There are two main types: insertion sequences (IS), which are short DNA sequences that code for transposase enzymes; and transposons, which can carry additional genes and are flanked by IS elements or inverted repeats. Transposition occurs when the transposase enzyme cuts and inserts the transposon into a new target site, sometimes duplicating flanking DNA. This movement allows transposons to generate genetic diversity and influence genome evolution over generations.
Ara operon
The L-arabinose operon contains three structural genes - araB, araA, and araD - that encode enzymes required for the metabolism of L-arabinose in E. coli. The expression of the operon is regulated by the AraC protein and the CAP-cAMP complex. In the absence of L-arabinose, AraC acts as a repressor by forming a DNA loop, while in the presence of L-arabinose, AraC binds to different DNA sites and activates transcription. CAP facilitates activation when glucose is absent. The operon is also used in protein expression systems by fusing genes of interest to the araBAD promoter.
Trp operon
The document discusses the tryptophan (trp) operon in bacteria. The trp operon contains five structural genes that encode enzymes for tryptophan biosynthesis. Expression of the structural genes is regulated by a trp promoter, operator sequence, and repressor protein. In the absence of tryptophan, the repressor cannot bind to the operator and the structural genes are transcribed. However, in the presence of tryptophan, it binds to the repressor and prevents transcription of the structural genes. The trp operon is also regulated by attenuation - a mechanism where tryptophan availability affects the formation of transcription terminator stem loops in the mRNA leader sequence.
Lac operon
The document describes the lac operon in E. coli, which regulates genes involved in lactose metabolism. The lac operon contains three structural genes - lacZ, lacY, and lacA - that are regulated by the lac repressor and catabolite activator protein (CAP). The lac repressor normally binds to the operator region and blocks transcription. In the presence of lactose, allolactose binds to the lac repressor and causes it to detach from DNA. CAP promotes transcription when glucose levels are low, allowing the cell to preferentially metabolize lactose over glucose. Together, these regulatory mechanisms ensure the lac genes are only expressed when lactose is available and glucose is not.
Classification of culture media
This document discusses the classification and preparation of culture media in microbiology. It begins by explaining the different types of nutritional requirements in microbes and aseptic techniques used in the lab. It then summarizes various forms of culture media like broths, slopes, plates and semi-solid media. Media can be classified based on agar concentration, ingredients used, and oxygen requirements of microbes. Simple and complex media types are described as well as enrichment and selective media. Special media like Robertson's meat broth and thioglycollate are used for isolating anaerobic bacteria.
Different forms of media
This document discusses different forms of culture media used in microbiology. It describes nutrient broth as a liquid culture medium used to grow fastidious microorganisms. Preparation of nutrient broth involves adding broth powder to water, mixing, pouring into containers, and autoclaving. Agar slopes are prepared by pouring molten agar into test tubes at an angle to solidify in a slanted form. Agar deeps allow observation of bacterial growth patterns in agar due to oxygen gradients. Solid and semisolid media contain varying concentrations of agar to control consistency and allow different growth applications.
Phage typing
Phage typing is a phenotypic method used to differentiate between bacterial strains using bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria). Certain bacteriophages can only infect specific bacterial strains. Phage typing involves growing bacterial cultures and spotting them with different bacteriophages - susceptible strains will show clearings where the bacteria have been lysed. While a complex method, phage typing has been useful for epidemiological surveillance and tracing outbreaks of pathogens like Salmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus. Improved standardization is needed to ensure reliable comparison of results between laboratories.
Production of biodegradable. plastic
The document discusses production of biodegradable plastics. It notes that over 140 million tons of plastic are consumed annually, most of which are not biodegradable. Bioplastics are a feasible alternative as they are made from renewable resources like vegetable oils and can biodegrade. Common types of bioplastics include polylactic acid, poly-3-hydroxybutyrate, and thermoplastic starch. The production process for polylactic acid and uses of bioplastics in packaging, catering, gardening, medical, and sanitary products are described.
Lytic and lysogeny
The document summarizes the lytic and lysogenic cycles of bacteriophage λ (lambda), which infects E. coli bacteria. It describes the key genes involved in each cycle and how they regulate viral replication and integration into the host chromosome. The lytic cycle results in viral assembly and lysis of the host cell, while the lysogenic cycle involves integration of the viral DNA into the host genome and replication with the host. The document outlines the complex interplay between viral and host genes that determines whether the lytic or lysogenic cycle occurs.
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Phosphate Solubilising bacteria - Mass cultivation
- 1. Mass Production of Phosphate solubliser Dr. S. Sivasankara Narayani Assistant Professor Department of Microbiology Ayya Nadar Janaki Ammal College Sivakasi TamilNadu India
- 2. Intro • Phosphorus is an essential element for plant development and growth making up about 0.2 % of plant dry weight. • Plants acquire P from soil solution as phosphate anions. • However, phosphate anions are extremely reactive and may be immobilized through precipitation with cations such as Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Fe 3+ and Al 3+ , depending on the particular properties of a soil. • In these forms, P is highly insoluble and unavailable to plants. • As the results, the amount available to plants is usually a small proportion of this total
- 3. Mechanism • solubilize insoluble inorganic phosphate compounds, such as tricalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, hydroxyapatite, and rock phosphate • The principal mechanism for mineral phosphate solubilization is the production of organic acids, and acid phosphatases play a major role in the mineralization of organic phosphorus in soil. • It is generally accepted that the major mechanism of mineral phosphate solubilization is the action of organic acids synthesized by soil microorganisms. • Production of organic acids results in acidification of the microbial cells and its surroundings
- 4. Acids produced by microbes • Gluconic acid - Pseudomonas sp., Erwinia herbicola, Pseudomonas cepacia, Burkholderia cepacia • 2-Ketogluconic acid - Rhizobium leguminosarum, Rhizobium meliloti, Bacillus firmus • Strains of Bacillus - mixtures of lactic, isovaleric, isobutyric and acetic acids. Other organic acids, such as glycolic, oxalic, malonic, and succinic acid
- 5. Media Pikovskays’s medium Glucose 10 Ca3(PO4)2 -0.5 •NaCl 0.2 (NH4)2SO4 0.5 MgSO4.7H2O 0.1 KCl 0.2 Yeast extract 0.5 MnSO4. H2O 0.002 FeSO4.7H2 O 0.002 pH 7.0
- 6. Methods • Sample collection • Serial dilution and spread plate • Colony identification and morphology study • Pure culture isolation • Screening of bacterial strains • Production media for PSB • Mass production • Carrier material • mixing
- 7. • Media: proper media for inoculant (nutrient broth, yeast extract broth etc.) •Bacillus sp. -Nutrient broth for 3 – 7 days at 27±1℃ on rotary shaker at 150 rpm. Detection and estimation of the phosphate solublization ability of microorganisms using plate screening methods – Halozone formation, bromophenol blue method that produce yellow halos Fermenter pH -6.5 -7 Inoculum - 5%
- 8. carrier • peat lignite • Compost • leaf manures • cellulose powder • charcoal powder • coconut shell powder • rice husk powder • press mud High organism matter content Low soluble salts less than 1% High moisture content capacity 2:1 (carrier : Production Media) Soild form
- 10. Questions to think • How to identify PSB? • Mechanism behind PSB? • Name the media which is used to screen PSB and why? • Carrier material in biofertilizer • What is curing?