Short introduction to the Standard Model of particle physics given at Maplesoft R&D group. Historical introduction of particle physics, introduction to the Higgs boson and the current state of the art techniques in particle physics.
The document discusses the fundamental interactions and particles in physics according to the Standard Model. It describes the four fundamental interactions - gravitation, electromagnetism, weak nuclear force, and strong nuclear force. It outlines the development of theories of these interactions from classical mechanics to quantum field theory and the particles associated with each interaction, such as photons, electrons, quarks, and Higgs bosons. The Standard Model successfully explains most experimental data but leaves some questions unanswered.
The standard model of particle physics attempts to describe the fundamental interactions of nature. It classifies all known elementary particles and their interactions via gauge bosons that mediate four fundamental forces. While successful, it is limited and does not account for gravity, dark matter, neutrino masses, inflation, or the asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the universe. Many theories beyond the standard model have been proposed to address its limitations, such as supersymmetry, grand unification, string theory, and others.
The document discusses the history and development of theories attempting to unify the fundamental forces. It describes how electromagnetism was unified and the development of the electroweak theory. Efforts were made to include the strong nuclear force through grand unified theories, but requiring extremely high energies. String theory is now the leading approach to achieve a theory of everything by unifying gravity with other forces. Further experiments are still needed to fully test theories and achieve unification.
i am student of M.Sc (Physics) in university of sindh. it is my first book on high energy physics and i will also upload the new version of this book soon. so please read this book and give me feed back on my email address.
There are two types of elementary particles: fermions and bosons. Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle and have half-integer spin, while bosons do not obey PEP and have integer or zero spin. Fermions are further divided into leptons, which do not feel the strong force, and quarks, which do feel the strong force. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, which are divided into baryons containing three quarks and mesons containing two quarks. The four fundamental forces are electromagnetic, strong, weak, and gravity, and are mediated by gauge bosons.
This document summarizes the history of elementary particles, beginning with antiquity's concept of four elements and progressing through discoveries like the electron, proton, neutron, and later quarks and leptons. It describes how particles like pions, kaons, and muons were discovered in cosmic rays in the mid-20th century, complicating the simple proton-electron-neutron model. Gell-Mann later proposed the quark model and the baryon and meson octets, bringing order and symmetry. Further discoveries like charm, bottom, and top quarks and the W and Z bosons completed the standard model. Future discoveries may reveal particles beyond the standard model or internal structure within known particles.
The document discusses the fundamental interactions and particles in physics according to the Standard Model. It describes the four fundamental interactions - gravitation, electromagnetism, weak nuclear force, and strong nuclear force. It outlines the development of theories of these interactions from classical mechanics to quantum field theory and the particles associated with each interaction, such as photons, electrons, quarks, and Higgs bosons. The Standard Model successfully explains most experimental data but leaves some questions unanswered.
The standard model of particle physics attempts to describe the fundamental interactions of nature. It classifies all known elementary particles and their interactions via gauge bosons that mediate four fundamental forces. While successful, it is limited and does not account for gravity, dark matter, neutrino masses, inflation, or the asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the universe. Many theories beyond the standard model have been proposed to address its limitations, such as supersymmetry, grand unification, string theory, and others.
The document discusses the history and development of theories attempting to unify the fundamental forces. It describes how electromagnetism was unified and the development of the electroweak theory. Efforts were made to include the strong nuclear force through grand unified theories, but requiring extremely high energies. String theory is now the leading approach to achieve a theory of everything by unifying gravity with other forces. Further experiments are still needed to fully test theories and achieve unification.
i am student of M.Sc (Physics) in university of sindh. it is my first book on high energy physics and i will also upload the new version of this book soon. so please read this book and give me feed back on my email address.
There are two types of elementary particles: fermions and bosons. Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle and have half-integer spin, while bosons do not obey PEP and have integer or zero spin. Fermions are further divided into leptons, which do not feel the strong force, and quarks, which do feel the strong force. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, which are divided into baryons containing three quarks and mesons containing two quarks. The four fundamental forces are electromagnetic, strong, weak, and gravity, and are mediated by gauge bosons.
This document summarizes the history of elementary particles, beginning with antiquity's concept of four elements and progressing through discoveries like the electron, proton, neutron, and later quarks and leptons. It describes how particles like pions, kaons, and muons were discovered in cosmic rays in the mid-20th century, complicating the simple proton-electron-neutron model. Gell-Mann later proposed the quark model and the baryon and meson octets, bringing order and symmetry. Further discoveries like charm, bottom, and top quarks and the W and Z bosons completed the standard model. Future discoveries may reveal particles beyond the standard model or internal structure within known particles.
Particle physics is the branch of physics that studies subatomic particles and their interactions. By 1932, the four known elementary particles were the electron, proton, photon, and neutron. Elementary particles are the fundamental building blocks of the universe and have well-documented properties including mass, charge, spin, and lifetime. Some particles decay into others of smaller mass through weak interactions. Quarks are elementary particles that combine to form composite hadrons like protons and neutrons, and have properties like charge, mass, and six flavors including up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. Strangeness is a quantum number denoting the presence of a strange quark and is conserved in strong and electromagnetic interactions.
Intriguing Neutrinos: The Deep Secrets of Nature’s Ghosts by Dr Elisabeth Falkonthewight
Lisa Falk's presentation about the Neutrino, one of the fundamental particles which make up the universe - Also, currently, one of the least understood.
Subatomic particles produced by the decay of radioactive elements. They're special for many reasons - They have no charge, are incredibly light, travel at near light speed and travel through most other matter.
Following the introduction to what they are, she detailed the challenges of detecting them (she's been directly involved in these experiments, including time at CERN), and the vast equipment that's used.
Finally she talked about the DUNE project, the next stage in Neutrino detection.
Presented to Cafe Scientifique, Isle of Wight, 11th May 2015.
This document provides an overview of the topics to be covered in a Physics 357/457 course on elementary particle physics. The course will examine the elementary particles like quarks and leptons, the forces that govern their interactions, and theoretical models used to understand particle physics, including the Standard Model. It outlines the course structure, evaluation methods, and provides a list of reference materials for further reading on topics covered during the semester.
1) The document discusses the photoelectric effect and early explanations provided by Planck's quantum theory and Einstein. It describes experiments showing that electrons are emitted from metals when light above a threshold frequency strikes them.
2) Einstein used Planck's idea that energy is emitted and absorbed in discrete quanta to explain the photoelectric effect. He proposed that light consists of discrete packets of energy called photons, and that photons impart their entire energy to electrons.
3) The document also discusses de Broglie's hypothesis that all matter exhibits wave-particle duality, and derives an expression for the de Broglie wavelength of matter particles.
This document provides an overview of chromodynamics and the quark model. It discusses the following key points:
- Quantum chromodynamics describes the strong force and interaction between quarks via the exchange of gluons. Quarks have a property called "color" and gluons mediate the color force.
- The quark model proposes that hadrons like baryons and mesons are composed of more fundamental particles called quarks. Early models included up, down and strange quarks.
- Additional quarks were later discovered and the color quantum number was introduced to satisfy the Pauli exclusion principle and allow different quark combinations. Color neutrality is achieved through combinations of three quarks or a quark-antiquark pair
This document provides a list and overview of various subatomic and composite particles categorized by type, including:
- Elementary particles like fermions (quarks and leptons) and bosons that mediate forces
- Hypothetical particles predicted by theories like supersymmetry
- Composite particles like hadrons (baryons like protons/neutrons and mesons) and atomic/molecular structures
It describes key properties and classifications of the different particles, such as their constituents, charges, and roles in the standard model of particle physics.
This document discusses the nature of gravity and its relationship to other forces and fields. It provides evidence that gravity is an emergent phenomenon that arises from an underlying non-gravitational theory. Specifically:
1) Gravity behaves differently than other forces in that it curves spacetime itself rather than being mediated by particle exchanges. However, quantum gravity theories propose gravitons as force-carrying particles.
2) Holographic duality theories from the 1990s demonstrated that gravitational theories in higher dimensions are equivalent to non-gravitational theories in lower dimensions.
3) Modern developments like string theory and the AdS/CFT correspondence provide concrete examples of holography and establish gravity as an emer
The document discusses the Higgs boson particle and its significance in fundamental physics. It explores how the concept of the "god particle" emerged and led to the development of the Standard Model. The Higgs boson is the only particle in the Standard Model that has not been observed. Finding evidence of the Higgs boson would complete the Standard Model and help explain the origin of mass. Large experiments like the LHC were built to detect the rare Higgs boson and gain insights into fundamental forces and particles.
Black holes and dark matter must have formed early in the universe's development for galaxies and stars to later form, according to this document. It proposes that fundamental particles called dyons, which carry both electric and magnetic charges, aggregated in the early exponentially expanding universe to form black holes and dark matter. As the universe expanded and its energy density decreased, these dyon aggregates could have evaporated or dissociated into the elementary particles observed in experiments today. The document presents models showing how fundamental particle energies may have decreased exponentially as the universe expanded, in a way that could explain the formation of black holes and dark matter from dyon aggregates in the early universe.
Elementary particles are the most basic building blocks of the universe that do not have any substructure. They include electrons, protons, neutrons, photons, and more recently discovered particles like quarks. Historically, electrons, protons, and neutrons were thought to be elementary, but further research found them to be made up of even smaller particles like quarks. Elementary particles can be classified as fermions or bosons based on their spin, and as leptons, hadrons, baryons, or mesons based on their interactions. The Standard Model currently describes 12 fundamental matter particle types along with their antiparticles and force carrier particles that mediate the fundamental forces.
Einstein explained the phenomenon of photoelectric effect by proposing that:
1) Light is composed of discrete packets of energy called photons rather than a continuous wave.
2) The energy of each photon depends on the frequency of light - higher the frequency, greater the energy.
3) Photons can eject electrons from a metal surface if their energy is greater than or equal to the minimum energy required, called the work function, which is specific to each metal.
This document discusses the four fundamental forces in nature: gravitational, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear forces. It provides details on what each force is, how it acts, examples of its effects, and the theories behind it. A key point is that physicists believe these forces may be interrelated and emerged from a single force early in the universe, as described by various grand unified theories that aim to connect fundamental forces and particles.
The document discusses the search for the Higgs boson particle at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). It provides background on Peter Higgs and the Higgs mechanism that predicts the existence of the Higgs boson. It describes how the LHC collides protons to produce particles, focusing on strategies to discover the Higgs boson by analyzing decay products and looking for a peak in the invariant mass distribution. It outlines some of the main decay channels researchers will examine in the search.
1. Modern physics developed after Newtonian mechanics as scientists sought more accurate descriptions of phenomena that classical physics could not explain, such as black body radiation.
2. Pioneers of modern physics including Planck, Einstein, Heisenberg, and Schrodinger developed quantum mechanics and theories like relativity that are based on probabilities rather than certainties.
3. Applications of modern physics include lasers, computers, nuclear power and weapons, and advances in fields like chemistry and molecular biology.
Introduction to particle physics - AlevelOsman Elmais
- The document discusses the elementary constituents of matter and the forces that control their behavior at the most basic level. It provides a history of models of matter, from ancient Greeks' ideas of earth, air, fire and water to the modern understanding of protons, neutrons and electrons.
- By the 1930s, scientists understood matter is made up of three elementary particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. Later discoveries found these are composed of even smaller particles called quarks, held together by fundamental forces.
The wave-particle duality and the double slit experimentSatyavan65
From the Udemy online course "The weird World of Quantum Physics - A primer on the conceptual foundations of Quantum Physics": https://www.udemy.com/quantum-physics/?couponCode=SLIDESHCOUPON
Physics Final Presentation: Nuclear PhysicsChris Wilson
This document discusses the four fundamental forces in nuclear physics - gravitation, electromagnetism, strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force. It describes nuclear fusion and half-life decay. It also explains the types of particles involved in different types of nuclear decay such as alpha, beta, and gamma particles and emissions.
This document summarizes a lecture on Feynman rules for quantum field theory. The lecture introduces perturbation theory and elementary Feynman rules for calculating amplitudes. It discusses the interaction picture and S-matrix approach. Examples are provided for calculating amplitudes and probabilities for basic processes, including decay rates and lifetimes. The goal is to explain the fundamental concepts and tools used in quantum field theory calculations.
Quarks are elementary particles that combine to form composite particles like protons and neutrons. There are six types of quarks that differ in their mass and electric charge. Quarks are never found in isolation due to the strong force and possess properties like spin, electric charge, and color charge. The up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom quarks make up three generations and have corresponding antiquarks. Experiments in the 1960s-70s discovered quarks were the constituents of protons and neutrons. The quark model helped explain experimental results and is part of the Standard Model of particle physics.
Particle physics is the branch of physics that studies subatomic particles and their interactions. By 1932, the four known elementary particles were the electron, proton, photon, and neutron. Elementary particles are the fundamental building blocks of the universe and have well-documented properties including mass, charge, spin, and lifetime. Some particles decay into others of smaller mass through weak interactions. Quarks are elementary particles that combine to form composite hadrons like protons and neutrons, and have properties like charge, mass, and six flavors including up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. Strangeness is a quantum number denoting the presence of a strange quark and is conserved in strong and electromagnetic interactions.
Intriguing Neutrinos: The Deep Secrets of Nature’s Ghosts by Dr Elisabeth Falkonthewight
Lisa Falk's presentation about the Neutrino, one of the fundamental particles which make up the universe - Also, currently, one of the least understood.
Subatomic particles produced by the decay of radioactive elements. They're special for many reasons - They have no charge, are incredibly light, travel at near light speed and travel through most other matter.
Following the introduction to what they are, she detailed the challenges of detecting them (she's been directly involved in these experiments, including time at CERN), and the vast equipment that's used.
Finally she talked about the DUNE project, the next stage in Neutrino detection.
Presented to Cafe Scientifique, Isle of Wight, 11th May 2015.
This document provides an overview of the topics to be covered in a Physics 357/457 course on elementary particle physics. The course will examine the elementary particles like quarks and leptons, the forces that govern their interactions, and theoretical models used to understand particle physics, including the Standard Model. It outlines the course structure, evaluation methods, and provides a list of reference materials for further reading on topics covered during the semester.
1) The document discusses the photoelectric effect and early explanations provided by Planck's quantum theory and Einstein. It describes experiments showing that electrons are emitted from metals when light above a threshold frequency strikes them.
2) Einstein used Planck's idea that energy is emitted and absorbed in discrete quanta to explain the photoelectric effect. He proposed that light consists of discrete packets of energy called photons, and that photons impart their entire energy to electrons.
3) The document also discusses de Broglie's hypothesis that all matter exhibits wave-particle duality, and derives an expression for the de Broglie wavelength of matter particles.
This document provides an overview of chromodynamics and the quark model. It discusses the following key points:
- Quantum chromodynamics describes the strong force and interaction between quarks via the exchange of gluons. Quarks have a property called "color" and gluons mediate the color force.
- The quark model proposes that hadrons like baryons and mesons are composed of more fundamental particles called quarks. Early models included up, down and strange quarks.
- Additional quarks were later discovered and the color quantum number was introduced to satisfy the Pauli exclusion principle and allow different quark combinations. Color neutrality is achieved through combinations of three quarks or a quark-antiquark pair
This document provides a list and overview of various subatomic and composite particles categorized by type, including:
- Elementary particles like fermions (quarks and leptons) and bosons that mediate forces
- Hypothetical particles predicted by theories like supersymmetry
- Composite particles like hadrons (baryons like protons/neutrons and mesons) and atomic/molecular structures
It describes key properties and classifications of the different particles, such as their constituents, charges, and roles in the standard model of particle physics.
This document discusses the nature of gravity and its relationship to other forces and fields. It provides evidence that gravity is an emergent phenomenon that arises from an underlying non-gravitational theory. Specifically:
1) Gravity behaves differently than other forces in that it curves spacetime itself rather than being mediated by particle exchanges. However, quantum gravity theories propose gravitons as force-carrying particles.
2) Holographic duality theories from the 1990s demonstrated that gravitational theories in higher dimensions are equivalent to non-gravitational theories in lower dimensions.
3) Modern developments like string theory and the AdS/CFT correspondence provide concrete examples of holography and establish gravity as an emer
The document discusses the Higgs boson particle and its significance in fundamental physics. It explores how the concept of the "god particle" emerged and led to the development of the Standard Model. The Higgs boson is the only particle in the Standard Model that has not been observed. Finding evidence of the Higgs boson would complete the Standard Model and help explain the origin of mass. Large experiments like the LHC were built to detect the rare Higgs boson and gain insights into fundamental forces and particles.
Black holes and dark matter must have formed early in the universe's development for galaxies and stars to later form, according to this document. It proposes that fundamental particles called dyons, which carry both electric and magnetic charges, aggregated in the early exponentially expanding universe to form black holes and dark matter. As the universe expanded and its energy density decreased, these dyon aggregates could have evaporated or dissociated into the elementary particles observed in experiments today. The document presents models showing how fundamental particle energies may have decreased exponentially as the universe expanded, in a way that could explain the formation of black holes and dark matter from dyon aggregates in the early universe.
Elementary particles are the most basic building blocks of the universe that do not have any substructure. They include electrons, protons, neutrons, photons, and more recently discovered particles like quarks. Historically, electrons, protons, and neutrons were thought to be elementary, but further research found them to be made up of even smaller particles like quarks. Elementary particles can be classified as fermions or bosons based on their spin, and as leptons, hadrons, baryons, or mesons based on their interactions. The Standard Model currently describes 12 fundamental matter particle types along with their antiparticles and force carrier particles that mediate the fundamental forces.
Einstein explained the phenomenon of photoelectric effect by proposing that:
1) Light is composed of discrete packets of energy called photons rather than a continuous wave.
2) The energy of each photon depends on the frequency of light - higher the frequency, greater the energy.
3) Photons can eject electrons from a metal surface if their energy is greater than or equal to the minimum energy required, called the work function, which is specific to each metal.
This document discusses the four fundamental forces in nature: gravitational, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear forces. It provides details on what each force is, how it acts, examples of its effects, and the theories behind it. A key point is that physicists believe these forces may be interrelated and emerged from a single force early in the universe, as described by various grand unified theories that aim to connect fundamental forces and particles.
The document discusses the search for the Higgs boson particle at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). It provides background on Peter Higgs and the Higgs mechanism that predicts the existence of the Higgs boson. It describes how the LHC collides protons to produce particles, focusing on strategies to discover the Higgs boson by analyzing decay products and looking for a peak in the invariant mass distribution. It outlines some of the main decay channels researchers will examine in the search.
1. Modern physics developed after Newtonian mechanics as scientists sought more accurate descriptions of phenomena that classical physics could not explain, such as black body radiation.
2. Pioneers of modern physics including Planck, Einstein, Heisenberg, and Schrodinger developed quantum mechanics and theories like relativity that are based on probabilities rather than certainties.
3. Applications of modern physics include lasers, computers, nuclear power and weapons, and advances in fields like chemistry and molecular biology.
Introduction to particle physics - AlevelOsman Elmais
- The document discusses the elementary constituents of matter and the forces that control their behavior at the most basic level. It provides a history of models of matter, from ancient Greeks' ideas of earth, air, fire and water to the modern understanding of protons, neutrons and electrons.
- By the 1930s, scientists understood matter is made up of three elementary particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. Later discoveries found these are composed of even smaller particles called quarks, held together by fundamental forces.
The wave-particle duality and the double slit experimentSatyavan65
From the Udemy online course "The weird World of Quantum Physics - A primer on the conceptual foundations of Quantum Physics": https://www.udemy.com/quantum-physics/?couponCode=SLIDESHCOUPON
Physics Final Presentation: Nuclear PhysicsChris Wilson
This document discusses the four fundamental forces in nuclear physics - gravitation, electromagnetism, strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force. It describes nuclear fusion and half-life decay. It also explains the types of particles involved in different types of nuclear decay such as alpha, beta, and gamma particles and emissions.
This document summarizes a lecture on Feynman rules for quantum field theory. The lecture introduces perturbation theory and elementary Feynman rules for calculating amplitudes. It discusses the interaction picture and S-matrix approach. Examples are provided for calculating amplitudes and probabilities for basic processes, including decay rates and lifetimes. The goal is to explain the fundamental concepts and tools used in quantum field theory calculations.
Quarks are elementary particles that combine to form composite particles like protons and neutrons. There are six types of quarks that differ in their mass and electric charge. Quarks are never found in isolation due to the strong force and possess properties like spin, electric charge, and color charge. The up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom quarks make up three generations and have corresponding antiquarks. Experiments in the 1960s-70s discovered quarks were the constituents of protons and neutrons. The quark model helped explain experimental results and is part of the Standard Model of particle physics.
This document provides an overview of topics that will be covered related to relativity and particle physics. It will discuss concepts of special relativity including frames of reference, relativistic kinematics, particles and interactions, and quarks. There will be end of topic tests after completing sections on relativity and another test after the particle physics sections. Today's lesson will focus on frames of reference, defining what a frame of reference is, Galilean transformations, and solving problems involving relative velocities. It provides an example using different frames of reference on spaceships to illustrate apparent motion based on the observer's perspective.
The document discusses several topics related to science:
1. It describes how scientific questions are answered through processes like making observations, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments to test predictions, and analyzing data.
2. It discusses the history of science, noting that prior to about 200 years ago "science" did not exist and natural philosophy was practiced instead.
3. Key figures like Aristotle, Galileo, and Newton are mentioned for their contributions to the foundations of physics and correcting prior understandings of motion.
Merger & Acquisition by top Technology companiesSatyajit Paul
The study looks into the merger and acquisition by the top 10 Enterprise Technology companies in between 2000 to 2011 and attempts to identify the trend and strategic direction for these companies.
Richard Feynman developed diagrams to illustrate particle interactions through the exchange of other particles. His diagrams use straight lines for particles and curved lines for the exchanged particles. The diagrams must conserve charge at interaction points. Electromagnetic interactions exchange photons, while weak interactions exchange W bosons. Annihilation occurs when a particle collides with its antiparticle and they destroy each other, producing gamma rays. Pair production is the reverse, where a high energy photon transforms into a particle-antiparticle pair.
This document provides an introduction to particle physics, including:
- A brief history of discoveries of the elementary constituents of matter like protons, neutrons, electrons.
- An overview of the four fundamental forces and how they control particle behavior.
- Explanations of conservation laws, neutrino theory, and early experiments verifying mass-energy equivalence.
- Descriptions of the Standard Model of particle families, forces, the quark model, and antimatter discoveries.
This document discusses the key principles of special relativity, including:
1) The postulates of relativity state that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames, and that the speed of light has the same value in all reference frames.
2) Consequences of relativity include that there is no absolute length, time, or simultaneity between reference frames. Mass increases and mass and energy are equivalent based on the formula E=mc^2.
3) Time dilation describes how moving clocks run slower than stationary clocks by a factor of gamma, as demonstrated through experiments with muons.
This document provides an overview of elementary particles. It discusses their classification into baryons, leptons, and mesons. Baryons include protons, neutrons, and heavier hyperons. Leptons contain electrons, photons, neutrinos, and muons. Mesons have masses between baryons and leptons. Each particle is described along with its properties. The document also discusses particles and their antiparticles, and conservation laws related to parity, charge conjugation, time reversal, and the combined CPT symmetry.
Dialectical Materialism: An Introduction to Marx's Political PhilosophyCraig Collins, Ph.D.
Marx's political philosophy was based on dialectical and historical materialism, which were informed by Hegel's dialectics and Feuerbach's materialism. Marx rejected Hegel's idealism and saw dialectics operating in material history and class struggle, not just ideas. For Marx, human consciousness is shaped by material conditions and the mode of production, not the other way around. He applied a materialist dialectic to understand how contradictions within societies and between classes drive historical change and the evolution of social systems.
The document discusses the history of particle physics and the development of the Standard Model of particle physics. It describes how particles like electrons, protons, neutrons were discovered and how the atomic model evolved. Experiments at particle accelerators revealed more fundamental particles that were grouped into families and the three quark model was developed. The Higgs mechanism was proposed to explain how fundamental particles acquire mass through interacting with the hypothesized Higgs field. The Large Hadron Collider was built at CERN to search for the predicted but not yet observed Higgs boson and potentially discover signs of new physics like supersymmetry.
The document provides an overview of quantum mechanics, beginning with classical mechanics and the idea of a deterministic "clockwork universe." It then discusses early hints of quantum theory and how the field developed in the 1920s. Key aspects of quantum mechanics are introduced, such as the wave function, superposition, interference, entanglement, and decoherence. Measurement in quantum mechanics is discussed, as are different interpretations like Copenhagen and Many Worlds. The document uses examples like the behavior of a cat to help illustrate various quantum concepts.
This document outlines the key concepts of dialectical materialism including dialectics, materialism, and Engels' three laws of dialectics. It defines dialectical materialism as the view that ideas and thoughts change due to the movement and existence of matter. Materialism holds that the world is material and phenomena consist of matter in motion according to natural laws. Engels' three laws of dialectics are described as the law of unity and conflict of opposes, the law of passage of quantitative to qualitative changes, and the law of negation of the negation. Examples are provided for each law.
El documento resume los principales materiales utilizados en la construcción de edificios como piedra, hormigón, ladrillos y cerámica. Describe los procesos de construcción que incluyen la preparación del terreno, cimentación, estructura, cubierta, cerramiento, acabados interiores y maquinaria utilizada. Finalmente, señala que la construcción tiene un gran impacto ambiental debido al consumo de recursos y energía durante todas las etapas del ciclo de vida de un edificio.
This document summarizes key concepts from a textbook on strategic management. It discusses three main themes covered in the book: global considerations impacting strategic decisions, information technology as a strategic tool, and preserving the environment. It also outlines the strategic management process, benefits of good strategic management, and importance of ethics in business strategy.
El Británico Roger Penrose por sus desarrollos teóricos sobre agujeros negros. La Estadounidense Andrea Ghez y el Alemán Reinhald Genzel por el hallazgo de un objeto súper masivo y compacto en el centro de nuestra galaxia.
Por:
Herman J. Mosquera Cuesta
Ingeniero Mecánico UdeA.
PhD en Astrofísica.
Tres investigadores han sido galardonados con el premio Nobel de Física de este año por sus descubrimientos sobre estos fenómenos supermasivos. Roger Penrose por demostrar su existencia según la teoría de la relatividad general y Reinhard Genzel y Andrea Ghez por demostrar que los agujeros negros son capaces de interferir en las órbitas de estrellas cercanas.
Los astrónomos Roger Penrose, Reinhard Genzel y Andrea Ghez se han hecho con el premio Nobel de Física de 2020. El primero de los científicos ha obtenido la mitad del galardón por la demostración fáctica de la existencia de los agujeros negros, siguiendo los preceptos de la teoría de la relatividad de Einstein. Los otros dos investigadores han sido distinguidos por el descubrimiento de un objeto supermasivo en el centro de la Vía Láctea, a unos 26.000 años luz de nuestro planeta.
Reinhard Genzel y Andrea Ghez descubrieron un agujero negro en el centro de la Vía Láctea comprobando la velocidad de las órbitas de sus estrellas circundantes.
“Los descubrimientos de los galardonados de este año han abierto nuevos caminos en el estudio de objetos compactos y supermasivos. Pero estos objetos exóticos todavía plantean muchas preguntas que piden respuestas y plantean nuevos retos de investigación en el futuro, no solo sobre la estructura interna de estos objetos masivos, sino también sobre cómo usar la teoría de la relatividad general en condiciones extremas”, ha declarado David Haviland, presidente del Comité Nobel de Física.
This document summarizes the rules and questions from the UTSUK '14 quiz competition. The rules state that questions can be answered by the team asked or opposing teams who "pounce". Pounces must be answered within 30 seconds. Correct answers receive 10 points, wrong answers receive -5 points. The questions cover topics in meteorology, astronomy, history of science and technology, chemistry, and geology. Sample questions ask about rain shadows, sunspots, the limelight, vanishing spray, eye color determination, columnar basalt, and the synthesis of paracetamol. The document provides a high-level overview of the format and content of the quiz competition.
Particle physics studies the fundamental constituents of matter and the interactions between them. Protons and neutrons are composed of quarks, which have fractional electric charges and come in six flavors. Quarks and leptons also have corresponding antiparticles. Particles interact through four fundamental forces carried by force carrier particles - the photon for electromagnetism, gluons for the strong force, and W/Z bosons for the weak force. Theories propose all forces arise from an exchange of these carrier particles between matter particles.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of atomic theory from ancient times to modern physics. It discusses early Greek ideas of atoms and the development of atomic theory. Key figures discussed include Rutherford, Bohr, Thomson, and others. The document outlines experiments and models that refined understanding of atomic structure, including Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom and Bohr's improvements incorporating quantized electron orbits. It also discusses challenges to early models and how quantum mechanics provided a more complete explanation of atomic behavior and spectra. In summary, the document traces the progression of atomic theory from ancient ideas to modern quantum mechanical models through important experiments and theoretical developments over centuries.
The document discusses dark matter and the search for dark matter particles through theoretical physics. It begins with a cartoon depiction of dark matter and explains that dark matter exists based on evidence from astronomy and cosmology, such as galaxy rotation curves and gravitational lensing. It then presents the search for dark matter as a puzzle for fundamental physicists to determine which particles in their theories could account for dark matter. Several hypothetical dark matter candidates are discussed, as well as ways indirect evidence about dark matter properties could be learned. The talk concludes by drawing an analogy between the theoretical discovery and detection of Neptune and the ongoing search for direct evidence of dark matter particles.
A Physical Philosophy for Approaching the True and Then the Beautiful: Princi...Scientific Review SR
Physics demands not only the beautiful but also the true. The true is the first, and the beautiful is the second. The philosophy of physics should emphasize the true and then the beautiful. After reviewing three kind of main hypotheses beyond standard model, and based on experimental and observational evidences, three physical principles and three philosophical rules are suggested, namely P1-action principle, P2-duality principle, P3-equivalence principle, and R1-logic harmony, R2-minimum hypotheses, R3-maximum hopes. It is revealed that there are no supersymmetry and dark sectors because the space and time for the existence of unknown particles resemble impossible.
This document discusses Zhen Liu's research interests and experience in beyond standard model (BSM) phenomenology. It covers a wide range of topics including Higgs physics, exotic Higgs decays, supersymmetry, dark matter, and potential for new physics through novel on-shell interference effects. Liu has pioneered using these interference effects to probe BSM physics and is working on exotic long-lived particle signatures. Given the need for long-term planning of future experiments, Liu also contributes to studies of physics at potential future colliders like the ILC, CEPC, FCC-ee, and muon collider.
Dark matter is a mysterious form of matter that cannot be seen but accounts for most of the mass in the universe. It was first hypothesized to explain discrepancies between the observed motions of galaxies and clusters and what was predicted based on the amount of visible matter. Dark matter is thought to make up around 23% of the universe, binding galaxies together through gravity. While dark matter cannot be directly observed, its effects on visible matter provide evidence of its existence. Scientists continue searching for dark matter particles and investigating its nature to better understand how it shapes the universe.
This document contains the rules and questions for a science quiz competition consisting of 6 rounds. The rounds cover topics in physics, chemistry, astronomy, scientists and their discoveries. Contestants are awarded points for correct answers within time limits, with bonuses or penalties based on speed and accuracy. The goal is to demonstrate broad scientific knowledge through visual, audio and rapid-fire questioning.
1) The document discusses theories about how the sun is transitioning to a hotter stage of evolution due to increased dust and debris in the solar system providing more fuel. This will cause the sun's magnetic ionization level and temperature to increase in quantum jumps rather than smoothly.
2) When the sun's magnetic ionization increases, its interior will accelerate past light speed, emitting radioactivity. Once this high-speed matter slows below light speed at the sun's surface, it will emit bursts of x-rays. This could cause the sun to temporarily "go dark."
3) The theories presented aim to explain phenomena like chemtrails, geoengineering and climate change as effects of the sun's transition
The cosmic gorilla effect or the problem of undetected non terrestrial intell...Sérgio Sacani
This document discusses how human psychology and neurophysiology may be unintentionally biasing the search for non-terrestrial intelligence (NTI). It points out that focusing only on radio signals and known physics limits our perspective, and that more advanced civilizations could exploit dark matter or exist in other dimensions. It also suggests that focusing attention narrowly could cause us to miss obvious signs of NTI, similar to the "invisible gorilla" experiment on inattentional blindness. Broadening our concepts of what NTI may look and expanding our search across the electromagnetic spectrum and beyond known physics may improve our chances of detection.
The document summarizes the quark model proposed in 1964 to describe the internal structure of hadrons such as protons and neutrons. It states that all hadrons are composed of more fundamental particles called quarks, which come in three flavors: up, down, and strange. The model was later expanded to incorporate three colors and additional quark flavors as more particles were discovered. The quark model provided explanations for experimental findings and made accurate predictions that were later verified, gaining broad acceptance.
String theory proposes that fundamental particles are not point-like but vibrations of tiny filaments called strings. It seeks to address problems in theoretical physics like quantizing gravity and explaining mass hierarchies. String theory requires 10 dimensions but extra dimensions are hypothesized to be compactified at the Planck scale. While early formulations included competing theories, M-theory incorporating an 11th dimension aims to unify them through membranes interacting in a multiverse. Observational evidence could come from detecting supersymmetric particles at the LHC or imprints of string physics on cosmological phenomena like gravitational waves or the CMB.
String theory proposes that fundamental particles are not point-like but are tiny vibrating strings. It aims to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity by incorporating gravity into a theory of everything at very small scales. String theory predicts that spacetime has 10 dimensions rather than the observed 4 dimensions, with the extra 6 dimensions being curled up too small to detect directly. While strings have never been observed, string theory remains a promising area of research as the only known way to reconcile quantum mechanics and general relativity.
The document discusses the structure and composition of atoms and elementary particles. It describes how atoms are made up of even smaller particles like electrons, protons, and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are made up of even smaller particles called quarks. The smallest known particles are the six types of quarks and six types of leptons that make up all hadrons and compose all visible matter in the universe according to the Standard Model of particle physics.
This article aims to present possible strategies for humanity to seek its survival with the end of the Universe in which we live. Research on the fate of our Universe, on the existence or not of multiverse or parallel universes and on the development of the final theory or theory of everything, that is, of the theory of the unified field, are important questions to elucidate in order to point out possible strategies for humanity seeks its survival with the end of the Universe in which we live.
1. The document contains 6 questions connected by the common theme of science and scientists. Answering each question correctly earns 10 points, with an additional 5 points for each team that does not answer correctly. Additionally, answering the first question earns 35 points, with the value decreasing by 5 points for each subsequent question. The questions cover topics like the inventor of the telephone, Michael Faraday's contributions to electromagnetism, and the physics of the aurora borealis.
This document provides an introduction to the textbook "Fundamentals in Nuclear Physics" by Jean-Louis Basdevant, James Rich, and Michel Spiro. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
1) The textbook was produced by top scientists at the prestigious Ecole Polytechnique in France and aims to provide undergraduate students with fundamental knowledge of nuclear physics and its applications.
2) The textbook incorporates the most recent scientific advances in nuclear physics into its courses and achieves an outstanding level of quality and consistency across topics due to the high caliber of its authors and reviewers.
3) The textbook was originally restricted to Ecole Polytechnique students but has since been made available in English to reach
The universe: why does it exist? Why is there something rather than nothing? Where and why did structure arise: galaxies, and clusters of galaxies. This slide show is a full history of enquiry into how structure arises in the universe. It goes from Plato and Aristotle to the Nobel Prize in Physics 2011. The title Heart of Darkness refers to a book that has the full story: Heart of Darkness, by Jeremiah P Ostriker and Simon Mitton, ISBN 978 0691134307
The document discusses searches for new physics at the LHC using an effective field theory (EFT) approach. It outlines the talk which will cover EFT applications in the Higgs and electroweak sectors, including Higgs to ZZ* decays and diboson production. The EFT framework is introduced as a way to parameterize potential deviations from the standard model in a model-independent way, without assuming a specific new physics model. The most general EFT basis at dimension-6 contains 2499 operators, which can be reduced to 59 under certain flavor symmetries, using the so-called Warsaw basis.
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio defended their PhD thesis on October 16th, 2017. The thesis focused on four main projects: theoretical work on effective field theories including renormalization of the SMEFT, experimental validation of Monte Carlo generators for vector boson scattering, and a matrix element study for a CMS vector boson scattering analysis. Side projects included starting work on implementing effective field theories in vector boson scattering Monte Carlo generators.
Constraints on the Higgs Boson width from off-shell production and decay to Z...Raquel Gomez Ambrosio
This document summarizes a presentation about constraints on the Higgs boson width from off-shell production and decay to Z-boson pairs using data from the CMS detector at the LHC. The presentation discusses how measuring off-shell production can indirectly measure the Higgs width, shows results from CMS data in the 4 lepton and 2 lepton + missing energy channels that place an upper limit on the Higgs width of less than 22 MeV at 95% confidence level, and notes that further theoretical work is still needed to reduce uncertainties.
Searches for new physics at LHC within the Higgs sector. Step 2: Defining the...Raquel Gomez Ambrosio
We discuss the Effective field theory bottom-up approach, and show some examples of its application for VH production at LHC. We find some interesting results regarding the applicability of the perturbative expansion. Finally we discuss the Pseudo Observable approach as a tool for New Physics searches at LHC.
Effective field theories provide a useful framework for studying new physics beyond the Standard Model. They allow researchers to include possible higher-dimensional operators consistent with the symmetries of known physics. In a bottom-up approach, one can start from the Standard Model and add higher-dimensional operators suppressed by some scale to parameterize potential new physics effects. Alternatively, a top-down approach integrates out heavy fields from a putative high-energy theory to derive the corresponding effective field theory below the mass scale of the heavy states. The covariant derivative expansion method respects gauge invariance and can be used to systematically match a high-energy theory onto its low-energy effective description.
This document discusses using effective field theory (EFT) to search for new physics beyond the Standard Model. It introduces the kappa framework, which parametrizes deviations from the Standard Model in a non-gauge invariant way. EFT provides an alternative approach that is compatible with quantum field theory. The document outlines how to build a basis of higher-dimensional operators in the Standard Model EFT and perform calculations to NLO while renormalizing ultraviolet divergences. Open questions remain about the validity range, possible high-energy completions, and combining bottom-up and top-down EFT approaches.
Talk given at "Rencontres de Blois 2016"
For the analysis of LHC run-II results some subleading production channels, in particular vector boson fusion (VBF), will be of great importance in the search of new physics in terms of small deviations with respect to the Standard Model couplings and masses.
Here we address the strategy for such an analysis. On the one hand in terms of exact calculation of NLO-EW corrections and its implementation in the Monte Carlo generators, and on the other hand in terms of a bottom-up Effective Field theory. This is a very challenging analysis due to the introduction of many new parameters in the theory and needs of new strategies for a successful comparison between experiment and theory.
Discovery of An Apparent Red, High-Velocity Type Ia Supernova at 𝐳 = 2.9 wi...Sérgio Sacani
We present the JWST discovery of SN 2023adsy, a transient object located in a host galaxy JADES-GS
+
53.13485
−
27.82088
with a host spectroscopic redshift of
2.903
±
0.007
. The transient was identified in deep James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)/NIRCam imaging from the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program. Photometric and spectroscopic followup with NIRCam and NIRSpec, respectively, confirm the redshift and yield UV-NIR light-curve, NIR color, and spectroscopic information all consistent with a Type Ia classification. Despite its classification as a likely SN Ia, SN 2023adsy is both fairly red (
�
(
�
−
�
)
∼
0.9
) despite a host galaxy with low-extinction and has a high Ca II velocity (
19
,
000
±
2
,
000
km/s) compared to the general population of SNe Ia. While these characteristics are consistent with some Ca-rich SNe Ia, particularly SN 2016hnk, SN 2023adsy is intrinsically brighter than the low-
�
Ca-rich population. Although such an object is too red for any low-
�
cosmological sample, we apply a fiducial standardization approach to SN 2023adsy and find that the SN 2023adsy luminosity distance measurement is in excellent agreement (
≲
1
�
) with
Λ
CDM. Therefore unlike low-
�
Ca-rich SNe Ia, SN 2023adsy is standardizable and gives no indication that SN Ia standardized luminosities change significantly with redshift. A larger sample of distant SNe Ia is required to determine if SN Ia population characteristics at high-
�
truly diverge from their low-
�
counterparts, and to confirm that standardized luminosities nevertheless remain constant with redshift.
(June 12, 2024) Webinar: Development of PET theranostics targeting the molecu...Scintica Instrumentation
Targeting Hsp90 and its pathogen Orthologs with Tethered Inhibitors as a Diagnostic and Therapeutic Strategy for cancer and infectious diseases with Dr. Timothy Haystead.
Evidence of Jet Activity from the Secondary Black Hole in the OJ 287 Binary S...Sérgio Sacani
Wereport the study of a huge optical intraday flare on 2021 November 12 at 2 a.m. UT in the blazar OJ287. In the binary black hole model, it is associated with an impact of the secondary black hole on the accretion disk of the primary. Our multifrequency observing campaign was set up to search for such a signature of the impact based on a prediction made 8 yr earlier. The first I-band results of the flare have already been reported by Kishore et al. (2024). Here we combine these data with our monitoring in the R-band. There is a big change in the R–I spectral index by 1.0 ±0.1 between the normal background and the flare, suggesting a new component of radiation. The polarization variation during the rise of the flare suggests the same. The limits on the source size place it most reasonably in the jet of the secondary BH. We then ask why we have not seen this phenomenon before. We show that OJ287 was never before observed with sufficient sensitivity on the night when the flare should have happened according to the binary model. We also study the probability that this flare is just an oversized example of intraday variability using the Krakow data set of intense monitoring between 2015 and 2023. We find that the occurrence of a flare of this size and rapidity is unlikely. In machine-readable Tables 1 and 2, we give the full orbit-linked historical light curve of OJ287 as well as the dense monitoring sample of Krakow.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
The cost of acquiring information by natural selectionCarl Bergstrom
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
PPT on Sustainable Land Management presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
JAMES WEBB STUDY THE MASSIVE BLACK HOLE SEEDSSérgio Sacani
The pathway(s) to seeding the massive black holes (MBHs) that exist at the heart of galaxies in the present and distant Universe remains an unsolved problem. Here we categorise, describe and quantitatively discuss the formation pathways of both light and heavy seeds. We emphasise that the most recent computational models suggest that rather than a bimodal-like mass spectrum between light and heavy seeds with light at one end and heavy at the other that instead a continuum exists. Light seeds being more ubiquitous and the heavier seeds becoming less and less abundant due the rarer environmental conditions required for their formation. We therefore examine the different mechanisms that give rise to different seed mass spectrums. We show how and why the mechanisms that produce the heaviest seeds are also among the rarest events in the Universe and are hence extremely unlikely to be the seeds for the vast majority of the MBH population. We quantify, within the limits of the current large uncertainties in the seeding processes, the expected number densities of the seed mass spectrum. We argue that light seeds must be at least 103 to 105 times more numerous than heavy seeds to explain the MBH population as a whole. Based on our current understanding of the seed population this makes heavy seeds (Mseed > 103 M⊙) a significantly more likely pathway given that heavy seeds have an abundance pattern than is close to and likely in excess of 10−4 compared to light seeds. Finally, we examine the current state-of-the-art in numerical calculations and recent observations and plot a path forward for near-future advances in both domains.
Candidate young stellar objects in the S-cluster: Kinematic analysis of a sub...Sérgio Sacani
Context. The observation of several L-band emission sources in the S cluster has led to a rich discussion of their nature. However, a definitive answer to the classification of the dusty objects requires an explanation for the detection of compact Doppler-shifted Brγ emission. The ionized hydrogen in combination with the observation of mid-infrared L-band continuum emission suggests that most of these sources are embedded in a dusty envelope. These embedded sources are part of the S-cluster, and their relationship to the S-stars is still under debate. To date, the question of the origin of these two populations has been vague, although all explanations favor migration processes for the individual cluster members. Aims. This work revisits the S-cluster and its dusty members orbiting the supermassive black hole SgrA* on bound Keplerian orbits from a kinematic perspective. The aim is to explore the Keplerian parameters for patterns that might imply a nonrandom distribution of the sample. Additionally, various analytical aspects are considered to address the nature of the dusty sources. Methods. Based on the photometric analysis, we estimated the individual H−K and K−L colors for the source sample and compared the results to known cluster members. The classification revealed a noticeable contrast between the S-stars and the dusty sources. To fit the flux-density distribution, we utilized the radiative transfer code HYPERION and implemented a young stellar object Class I model. We obtained the position angle from the Keplerian fit results; additionally, we analyzed the distribution of the inclinations and the longitudes of the ascending node. Results. The colors of the dusty sources suggest a stellar nature consistent with the spectral energy distribution in the near and midinfrared domains. Furthermore, the evaporation timescales of dusty and gaseous clumps in the vicinity of SgrA* are much shorter ( 2yr) than the epochs covered by the observations (≈15yr). In addition to the strong evidence for the stellar classification of the D-sources, we also find a clear disk-like pattern following the arrangements of S-stars proposed in the literature. Furthermore, we find a global intrinsic inclination for all dusty sources of 60 ± 20◦, implying a common formation process. Conclusions. The pattern of the dusty sources manifested in the distribution of the position angles, inclinations, and longitudes of the ascending node strongly suggests two different scenarios: the main-sequence stars and the dusty stellar S-cluster sources share a common formation history or migrated with a similar formation channel in the vicinity of SgrA*. Alternatively, the gravitational influence of SgrA* in combination with a massive perturber, such as a putative intermediate mass black hole in the IRS 13 cluster, forces the dusty objects and S-stars to follow a particular orbital arrangement. Key words. stars: black holes– stars: formation– Galaxy: center– galaxies: star formation
Candidate young stellar objects in the S-cluster: Kinematic analysis of a sub...
Particle Physics in a nutshell
1. Particle Physics in a Nutshell
(or “the things we do at CERN”)
Raquel G´omez Ambrosio
Universit`a & INFN @Torino & CMS @CERN
Introduction at Maplesoft
June 13, 2016
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 1 / 53
2. HiggsTools
HiggsTools is one of the many training networks from the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions.
13 European Universities
4 Research Institutes (DESY, MPI, PSI, CERN)
3 Private Partners (Maplesoft, Wolfram, Shell)
20 students & several senior physicists
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 2 / 53
9. higgstools
Historical Introduction: The Greek
Until the XIX century, humans didn’t think too much about the constituents of matter, but rather
about their properties. Studying them through alchemy and chemistry.
In the IV century B.C. some greek thinkers (Δημόκριτος, Επίκουρος) proposed the idea of the
atom as the smallest component of matter.
But the idea was thrown down by ᾿Αριστοτέλης and his school, alleging that if matter would
be discrete instead of continuous, that would imply some kind of vacuum inside it, which is an
uncomfortable concept.
Philosophy and Physics have always been closely related.
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 8 / 53
10. higgstools
Historical Introduction: The 19th Century
In the XIX century scientists became more interested in the nature of matter: Dalton confirmed
Laviosier’s law for conservation of matter and Avogrado postulated his law for the number of
particles in a gas. Defying the previously accepted interpretation.
This was finally confirmed with Mendeleev and the periodic table in 1869.
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 9 / 53
11. higgstools
The 20th century: The Golden Years for particle physics
By the beginning of the XX century everyone had their own atomic model: Thomson, Rutherford,
Bohr, Sommerfeld, Schr¨odinger, Dirac . . .
And the foundations of particle physics where established:
1897: Discovery of the electron (J.J. Thomson)
1911: Discovery of the proton (Rutherford)
1932: Discovery of the neutron (Chadwick)
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 10 / 53
12. higgstools
The 20th Century: The Golden Years for particle physics
Things seemed to finally make sense, but that wouldn’t last long. In the following years, particle-
detecting techniques (and technologies) improved and dozens of new particles were found.
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 11 / 53
13. higgstools
The 20th Century: The Golden Years for particle physics
Things seemed to finally make sense, but that wouldn’t last long. In the following years, particle-
detecting techniques (and technologies) improved and dozens of new particles were found.
Some had been predicted by the theorists: pions (π0, π+, π−), positron (e+), neutrinos (ν) . . .
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 11 / 53
14. higgstools
The 20th Century: The Golden Years for particle physics
Things seemed to finally make sense, but that wouldn’t last long. In the following years, particle-
detecting techniques (and technologies) improved and dozens of new particles were found.
Some had been predicted by the theorists: pions (π0, π+, π−), positron (e+), neutrinos (ν) . . .
But other were completely gratuitous: µ, K0, K+, K−, Λ, Ξ−, Ξ0, Ω0 , . . .
The lightest of these particles were called leptons, the intermediate ones were called mesons, and
the heaviest were called baryons
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 11 / 53
15. higgstools
Murray Gell-Mann: The Eightfold way
Murray Gell-Mann decided to sort the mesons and baryons in octets, according to their properties
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 12 / 53
16. higgstools
Murray Gell-Mann: The Eightfold way
Murray Gell-Mann decided to sort the mesons and baryons in octets, according to their properties
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 13 / 53
17. higgstools
Some group theory: SU(N)
Group thery was already a tool used in particle physics: At that time, SU(2) was known to be the
group characterizing “spin”, the 3 generators of SU(2) are called ”Pauli Matrices” by physicists.
For the case of mesons and baryons, SU(3) seemed to be more appropriate: SU(3) acts on 3
elements and has rank 2 (i.e. 2 Casimir operators). Casimir operators are very important in
physics, we use them to characterize objects. In the case of the eightfold way: Q and S.
Look at the fundamental representation:
3 ⊗ ¯3 = 8 ⊕ 1
3 ⊗ 3 ⊗ 3 = 10 ⊕ 8 ⊕ 8 ⊕ 1
The elements of the vector space where this group acts where called “Quarks”. In particular: Up,
Down, and Strange (u,d,s).
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 14 / 53
18. higgstools
Murray Gell-Mann: The Quarks
This is how the “Quark model” was established. Murray Gell-Mann won the nobel prize in 1969.
And he deserves to be called The Mendeleev of physics
and, yes, we do call the generators of SU(3) “Gell-Mann matrices” . . .
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 15 / 53
19. higgstools
J/Ψ
In 1974 something dramatic happened: a heavy meson with a very long mean life was discovered.
“It’s as though someone came upon an isolated village in Peru or the Caucasus where people
live to be 70,000 years old.” D.Griffths
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 16 / 53
20. higgstools
J/Ψ
After some months of debate the riddle was solved: If we have 4 fundamental leptons (e, νe , µ, νµ)
why not have 4 fundamental quarks too?
Gell-Mann’s flavor symmetry was promoted, SU(3) → SU(4) and the Quark model survived. The
fourth Quark was called “Charm” (as well as the new casimir operator).
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 17 / 53
21. higgstools
The Standard Model
More leptons and quarks were discovered until we arrived to the current picture: These are the
fundamental particles that constitute all matter that we know.
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 18 / 53
22. higgstools
Interlude: Quantum Mechanics, the change of paradigm
Recall, in the early XX century we lived the Quantum revolution. Planck, Born, DeBroglie, Einstein,
Heisenberg, Schr¨odinger, . . . had established a very successful framework in which particles were
neither waves nor matter. But both at the same time.
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 19 / 53
23. higgstools
Interlude: Quantum Mechanics, the change of paradigm
Quantum Coffee, Toronto
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 20 / 53
24. higgstools
The Standard Model: Tomonaga, Feynman, Schwinger (& Dyson)
Particles can not be described as tiny static spheres. We understand particles to be perturbations
in a field, and as such they are described by a wave function.
The wave function, tells us the probability of finding the particle in a certain point at a certain
time. For instance, for an electron:
LDirac = ¯ψ(i cγµ
∂µ − mc2
)ψ, ψ → ψeiθ
Global U(1) symmetry
The γ matrices are the 4-dim representation of SU(2),
however we like to call them “Dirac Matrices”
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 21 / 53
25. higgstools
The Standard Model: Tomonaga, Feynman, Schwinger (& Dyson)
LDirac = ¯ψ(i cγµ
∂µ − mc2
)ψ, ψ → ψeiθ
Global U(1) symmetry
What happens if we promote the global symmetry to a local one: θ → θ(x)?
The Lagrangian will be symmetric under a local U(1) as long as . . .
Aµ → Aµ −
1
qe
∂µθ(x), ∂µ → Dµ = ∂µ + iqe Aµ
L = LDirac −
1
4
Fµν
Fµν , Fµν = ∂µAν − ∂ν Aµ
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 22 / 53
26. higgstools
The Standard Model: Tomonaga, Feynman, Schwinger (& Dyson)
LDirac = ¯ψ(i cγµ
∂µ − mc2
)ψ, ψ → ψeiθ
Global U(1) symmetry
What happens if we promote the global symmetry to a local one: θ → θ(x)?
The Lagrangian will be symmetric under a local U(1) as long as . . .
Aµ → Aµ −
1
qe
∂µθ(x), ∂µ → Dµ = ∂µ + iqe Aµ
L = LDirac −
1
4
Fµν
Fµν , Fµν = ∂µAν − ∂ν Aµ
The new field Aµ is the photon! It appeared naturally by making our global symmetry local.
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 22 / 53
27. higgstools
Yang-Mills theories
In 1954, C.N. Yang and R. Mills decided to extend this technique to other Lagrangians, with
non-abelian symmetry groups. And they found that it worked pretty well.
Strong force → SU(3): 8 new fields (dimension of SU(3)), called Gluons: Gµν
Weak Force → SU(2): 3 new fields: Z0, W +, W −
The Gauge Bosons Z0, W +, W − were observed at CERN in 1983. Thanks to some experiments
designed by Carlo Rubbia and Simon Van der Meer.
They also got their Nobel Prize . . . those were great years for particle physics.
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 23 / 53
28. higgstools
The Standard Model: Electromagnetic, Electroweak and Strong Force
Particle Fever
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 24 / 53
29. The Standard Model: Electromagnetic, Electroweak and Strong Force
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 25 / 53
30. higgstools
Unfortunately it is not so easy . . .
On one hand, the weak force is entangled with the electromagnetic one → SU(2) ⊗ U(1)
On the other hand, the fields of SU(2) are not really Z0, W +, W −, but a mixture of them.
Such a “mixture”, i.e. the breaking of a symmetry, must imply the appearance of new
particles (one per broken symmetry, Goldstone’s theorem )
And this new particle appearing is . . .
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 26 / 53
32. higgstools
The Higgs Mechanism
The Higgs boson can not be classified as “matter” (like leptons and quarks) nor as a gauge
field (like photons, gluons . . . )
In 1964, Brout, Englert and Higgs came up with an interpretation of the Higgs as a “sea of
particles where all other particles float”
Englert and Higgs won the Nobel Prize for this in 2013
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 28 / 53
37. higgstools
The Higgs boson
On July 4th 2012, the Higgs boson discovery was officially announced at CERN.
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 33 / 53
38. higgstools
Higgs Boson Production at LHC. For a theorist: Feynman Diagrams
Gluon-Gluon Fusion: Main production channel
Vector Boson Fusion: Second most important channel
If you want more . . . click here:
http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/The_Higgs_Boson_discovery
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 34 / 53
39. higgstools
Higgs Boson Production at LHC. For an experimentalist: Events
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 35 / 53
40. higgstools
CMS Detector, the Compact Muon Solenoid
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 36 / 53
41. higgstools
CMS Detector, the Compact Muon Solenoid
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 37 / 53
42. higgstools
CMS Detector, the Compact Muon Solenoid: Pileup
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 38 / 53
43. higgstools
CMS Detector, the Compact Muon Solenoid: Pileup
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 39 / 53
44. higgstools
The interface between theorists and experimentalists: The analysis
A big part of our work is to find a common framework for
theorists and experimentalists to work together
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 40 / 53
45. higgstools
The analysis
This is the main process that we study in Turin: Vector Boson Fusion
p
p
Tagged jet 1
Tagged jet 2
Underlying Events
Underlying Events
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 41 / 53
46. higgstools
The Higgs decays before it can be detected
H
Z
Z
e−
e+
µ+
µ−
H
W −
W +
e−
¯νe
µ+
νµ
Given any of this processes, and the initial conditions, it is relatively easy for a theorist to
provide a prediction for it (i.e, a numerical value for the probability of it to happen)
But . . . we don’t really know the initial conditions!
Also, processes in the detector interfere with each other, they are not isolated.
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 42 / 53
47. higgstools
The Monte Carlo generators
One dimensional Monte Carlo generator:
One of the challenges for the next years is to develop the technology to calculate the biggest
possible amount of Monte Carlo events, with the maximum precision and the minimum amount of
entropy (i.e. computer memory and time)
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 43 / 53
48. The analysis
A theoretical prediction looks more like this:
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 44 / 53
49. higgstools
How do you compare observations with predictions, then?
Monte Carlo generators + Experimental data
These are called “The Nobel plots”
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 45 / 53
50. higgstools
New physics?
Since this is a historical talk, I have to tell you about a
might-be historical event
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 46 / 53
51. higgstools
December 2015 . . . it happened again
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 47 / 53
52. higgstools
It could be just an statistical artifact
The fluctuation is inside the “margin of error”
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 48 / 53
53. higgstools
However, no one seems to care:
Number of submissions related to the new resonance, by date: Until today, 445
(Credits: Dr.Andr´e David, http://jsfiddle.net/adavid/bk2tmc2m/show/)
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 49 / 53
54. higgstools
Are we in front of new physics?
We live for sure exciting times for particle physics
However we will only get confirmation about this discovery in August at ICHEP conference
in Chicago. Feel free to ask me about it then!
Even if this new particle gets ruled out, we have plenty of work to do . . .
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 50 / 53
55. higgstools
Open questions in particle physics
Main question now is: How can we incorporate gravity to the SM
In principle it is possible to formulate gravity as a Yang-Mills theory, with symmetry group SO(3,1),
or “Lorenz group” for physicists.
SO(3,1) is isomorphic to SU(2)⊗SU(2) and would correspond to a gauge boson with Spin 2.
However, after doing this one encounters fundamental problems, mainly:
How to quantize this theory (i.e., make it compatible with quantum physics)
How to renormalize this theory (i.e., make it convergent at very high energies)
Is the 750 particle “the” Graviton?
Raquel Gomez Ambrosio Particle Physics in a Nutshell June 13, 2016 51 / 53