The document discusses the history and development of theories attempting to unify the fundamental forces. It describes how electromagnetism was unified and the development of the electroweak theory. Efforts were made to include the strong nuclear force through grand unified theories, but requiring extremely high energies. String theory is now the leading approach to achieve a theory of everything by unifying gravity with other forces. Further experiments are still needed to fully test theories and achieve unification.
General Theory of Relativity is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the current description of gravitation in modern physics.
Einstein’s Theories of Relativity revolutionized how Today’s Scientific world thinks about Space, Time, Mass, Energy and Gravity. This is purely an imaginative Science that worked in the Laboratory of Einstein's Brain..
i am student of M.Sc (Physics) in university of sindh. it is my first book on high energy physics and i will also upload the new version of this book soon. so please read this book and give me feed back on my email address.
origin of quantum physics -
Inadequacy of classical mechanics and birth of QUANTUM PHYSICS
ref: Quantum mechanics: concepts and applications, N. Zettili
How the concept was introduced by the astrophycists and examples that provide the base for the existence of dark matter. Basic introduction to types of dark matter according to standard cosmological theory.
An introduction to neutrino physics suitable for graduate students. Neutrino oscillations is a phenomena that demonstrated that neutrinos have non-zero masses and they can transform from o flavor to another.
General Theory of Relativity is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the current description of gravitation in modern physics.
Einstein’s Theories of Relativity revolutionized how Today’s Scientific world thinks about Space, Time, Mass, Energy and Gravity. This is purely an imaginative Science that worked in the Laboratory of Einstein's Brain..
i am student of M.Sc (Physics) in university of sindh. it is my first book on high energy physics and i will also upload the new version of this book soon. so please read this book and give me feed back on my email address.
origin of quantum physics -
Inadequacy of classical mechanics and birth of QUANTUM PHYSICS
ref: Quantum mechanics: concepts and applications, N. Zettili
How the concept was introduced by the astrophycists and examples that provide the base for the existence of dark matter. Basic introduction to types of dark matter according to standard cosmological theory.
An introduction to neutrino physics suitable for graduate students. Neutrino oscillations is a phenomena that demonstrated that neutrinos have non-zero masses and they can transform from o flavor to another.
Colette Browning, Professor of Healthy Ageing and Director of Research at Monash University's School of Primary Health Care, presented at our seminar entitled 'Demographic Transition: Addressing the economic and social impacts of an ageing population: Is there a silver lining?' on Thursday 13th November, 2014, in Melbourne.
Held in partnership with National Australia Bank as part of the UNAA Sustainability Leadership Series, this seminar discussed the opportunities and challenges associated with an ageing society.
For more information about this seminar and the UNAA Sustainability Leadership Series please visit www.unaavictoria.org.au/education-advocacy/masterclasses/
Natasha Yemm, Manager for the Social Enterprise Development and Investment Funds (SEDIF) initiative at the Australian Government Department of Employment, presented at our seminar entitled ‘Impact Investing Seminar: Revolutionising capital markets for greater societal gains’ on Thursday 9 October 2014 in Melbourne.
Held in partnership with National Australia Bank as part of our Sustainability Leadership Series, the seminar brought together experts from various fields, discussing the challenges and opportunities associated with this innovative way to invest capital for social and/or environmental benefits as well as financial returns.
For more information about this seminar and the UNAA Sustainability Leadership Series please visit www.unaavictoria.org.au/education-advocacy/masterclasses/
Rebecca Scott, Co-Founder and CEO at STREAT, presented at our seminar entitled ‘Impact Investing Seminar: Revolutionising capital markets for greater societal gains’ on Thursday 9 October 2014 in Melbourne.
Held in partnership with National Australia Bank as part of our Sustainability Leadership Series, the seminar brought together experts from various fields, discussing the challenges and opportunities associated with this innovative way to invest capital for social and/or environmental benefits as well as financial returns.
For more information about this seminar and the UNAA Sustainability Leadership Series please visit www.unaavictoria.org.au/education-advocacy/masterclasses/
Will Richardson, Chief Investment Officer at Impact Investment Group, presented at our seminar entitled ‘Impact Investing Seminar: Revolutionising capital markets for greater societal gains’ on Thursday 9 October 2014 in Melbourne.
Held in partnership with National Australia Bank as part of our Sustainability Leadership Series, the seminar brought together experts from various fields, discussing the challenges and opportunities associated with this innovative way to invest capital for social and/or environmental benefits as well as financial returns.
For more information about this seminar and the UNAA Sustainability Leadership Series please visit www.unaavictoria.org.au/education-advocacy/masterclasses/
John McLeod, former Principal and Executive Director of Goldman Sachs JBWere, author and independent consultant and researcher for the Philanthropic Services team at JBWere, facilitated our seminar entitled ‘Impact Investing Seminar: Revolutionising capital markets for greater societal gains’ on Thursday 9 October 2014 in Melbourne.
Held in partnership with National Australia Bank as part of our Sustainability Leadership Series, the seminar brought together experts from various fields, discussing the challenges and opportunities associated with this innovative way to invest capital for social and/or environmental benefits as well as financial returns.
For more information about this seminar and the UNAA Sustainability Leadership Series please visit www.unaavictoria.org.au/education-advocacy/masterclasses/
In GIFT's 28th YLP, 30 executives from 11 countries spent two weeks in Hong Kong and Mongolia, and crafted an initial blueprint for the first ever impact investment fund to be set up in Mongolia. Of the 30 participants, six came from Mongolia, holding senior level positions in organisations such as Oyu Tolgoi LLC, the Ministry of Finance, XacBank, Monet Capital and Inter Group. Other companies represented included Orix, NEC, DuPont, Bosch, DBS Bank, and BASF. The diversity in participant cultures, backgrounds, and work experience added dynamism and fresh perspectives in achieving project goals. The programme was conducted in close partnership with TenGer Financial Group, a regional family of companies leading the way in providing fair access to broad and inclusive financial services in Mongolia.
here i have decribed which are the different theories in business cycle. there are about 7 theories regarding business cycle or trade cycle. Please go through the slides for simple descriptions.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
CYBER LAWS IN INDIA
CYBER CRIMES
OFFENCES AND LAWS IN CYBER SPACE
CYBER LAWS AMENDMENTS
CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
What is Cyber Law?
Cyber Law is the lawgoverning cyber space.Cyber space is a very wideterm and includescomputers, networks,software, data storagedevices (such as hard disks,USB disks etc), theInternet, websites, emailsand even electronic devicessuch as cell phones, ATMmachines etc.
Cyber lawencompasses lawsrelating to
:
1. Cyber Crimes
2. Electronic and DigitalSignatures
3. Intellectual Property
4. Data Protection andPrivacy
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
TACKLING CYBERCRIMES
INTELLECTUALPROPERTYRIGHTS ANDCOPYRIGHTSPROTECTION ACT
NEED FOR CYBER LAWS
1. Cyberspace is an
intangible
dimension that is impossible togovern and regulate usingconventional law.
2. Cyberspace has complete
disrespect for jurisdictionalboundaries
. A person in Indiacould break into a bank’selectronic vault hosted on acomputer in USA and transfermillions of Rupees to anotherbank in Switzerland, all withinminutes. All he would need is alaptop computer and a cellphone.
3. Cyberspace
handlesgigantic traffic volumesevery second
. Billions ofemails are crisscrossing theglobe even as we read this,millions of websites are beingaccessed every minute andbillions of dollars areelectronically transferredaround the world by banksevery day.
4. Cyberspace is
absolutelyopen to participation by all.
A ten year-old in Bhutan canhave a live chat session with aneight year-old in Bali withoutany regard for the distance orthe anonymity between them
ABOUT AUTHOR
Sumit Verma
Chitkara University
Undergraduate
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3. Warning
This journey may change your vision of the Universe.This journey may change your vision of the Universe.
What you will hear may alter your perception of reality.What you will hear may alter your perception of reality.
We are entering a Quantum World..
Stay awake and keep an open mind!
4. Why do we need a single unified theoryWhy do we need a single unified theory
What’s missing in the standard model?What’s missing in the standard model?
Prescriptions of a unified theoryPrescriptions of a unified theory
Gauge theoriesGauge theories
Electroweak unificationElectroweak unification
Grand unified theoryGrand unified theory
Klein Kaluza theoryKlein Kaluza theory
ConclusionConclusion
Why Do we need a single theory?
5. “Everyone’s goal is a theory of
everything, an economic,
simple theory that works at all
energies, at all scales, for all
time.”
6. Why Do we need a single theory?
Because there is only One GodBecause there is only One God
All the laws should be part of a single pattern.All the laws should be part of a single pattern.
A single theory is more beautiful than many theoriesA single theory is more beautiful than many theories
The early phases of the universe, only one UniversalThe early phases of the universe, only one Universal
force called Eventual Unity, is thought to have beenforce called Eventual Unity, is thought to have been
effective.effective.
Like Behavior of Roulette Ball on a Roulette WheelLike Behavior of Roulette Ball on a Roulette Wheel
high energy rolls round & round but at low energyhigh energy rolls round & round but at low energy
drops in to any 37 slats. Low energy 37 states , highdrops in to any 37 slats. Low energy 37 states , high
energy only one state idea of unification at high energy.energy only one state idea of unification at high energy.
7. What is Grand Unified Theory?
Unified field theory is an attempt to
describe all fundamental forces and
the relationships between
elementary particles in terms of a
single theoretical framework.
9. There are four fundamental forces,
or interactions in nature.
Strong nuclearStrong nuclear
ElectromagneticElectromagnetic
Weak nuclearWeak nuclear
GravitationalGravitational
Strongest
Weakest
10. Strong nuclear force
Holds the nuclei of atoms togetherHolds the nuclei of atoms together
Very strong, but only over very, very, veryVery strong, but only over very, very, very
short distances (within the nucleus of theshort distances (within the nucleus of the
atom) Responsible for Fission & Fusion.atom) Responsible for Fission & Fusion.
11. Electromagnetic force
Causes electric and magnetic effectsCauses electric and magnetic effects
Like charges repel each otherLike charges repel each other
Opposite charges attract each otherOpposite charges attract each other
Interactions between magnetsInteractions between magnets
Weaker than the strong nuclear forceWeaker than the strong nuclear force
Acts over a much longer distance rangeActs over a much longer distance range
than the strong nuclear force ,Also called asthan the strong nuclear force ,Also called as
(FORCE OF LIFE), Due to generating Bio(FORCE OF LIFE), Due to generating Bio
electrical currents in Human Body.electrical currents in Human Body.
12. Weak nuclear force
Responsible for nuclear decayResponsible for nuclear decay
Weak and has a very short distance rangeWeak and has a very short distance range
13. Gravitational force
Weakest of all fundamental forces, but actsWeakest of all fundamental forces, but acts
over very long distancesover very long distances
Always attractiveAlways attractive
Acts between any two pieces of matter inActs between any two pieces of matter in
the universethe universe
Very important in explaining the structureVery important in explaining the structure
of the universe, Can affect space time, timeof the universe, Can affect space time, time
slows down , space is warped .(Einstein)slows down , space is warped .(Einstein)
14. The 4 forces of Nature
Weak
• Beta-decay
• pp fusion
Strong
Quark
binding
Electromagnetic
•TV, PCs
• Magnets
• e- e+ creation
Gravity
Responsible of
Keeping us
well-planted on earth
Electric
charge
mass
weak
charge
strong
charge
15. The Road to Unification
Magnetism
Light
ElectromagneticElectromagnetic
Weak
Astronomical
Motion
Terrestrial
Motion
Electroweak Strong Gravitation
Grand
Unification
Single Force
Space
Time
Weak
Electricity
16. Quark confinement
There are no free quarks, quarks and ant quarks are “confined”
in colourless doublet (mesons) or triplets (baryons) by the exchange
of gluons
The new quarks bound
to the old quarks
and form new mesons
until the gluon connection
snaps, and other quark-anti quark
pairs are created out of the
energy released
Gluon hold quarks
together as they move
further apart
Z
0
Decay
® S.Ward
17. Force Particles (summary)
Particles interact and/or decay thanks to forces
Forces are also responsible of binding particles together
Strong: gluons
Only quarks
(because of their
colour charge)
Weak: W+
, W-
, Z0
Leptons and quarks
(only force for
neutrinos)
Electromagnetic: γ
Quarks and charged
leptons (no neutrinos)
Gravity: graviton?
Still to be discovered
Negligible effects on
particles
20. Electricity and Magnetism
Michael Faraday:Michael Faraday:
Born: September 22, 1791Born: September 22, 1791
Died: August 25, 1867Died: August 25, 1867
English physicist andEnglish physicist and
chemist whose many experimentschemist whose many experiments
contributed greatly to the understanding ofcontributed greatly to the understanding of
electromagnetism.electromagnetism.
FARADAYS,S LAW OFFARADAYS,S LAW OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION.ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION.
21. Electricity and Magnetism
James MaxwellJames Maxwell
Born June 13, 1831, Edinburgh, ScotlandBorn June 13, 1831, Edinburgh, Scotland
died November 5, 1879, Cambridge,died November 5, 1879, Cambridge,
Cambridgeshire, EnglandCambridgeshire, England
Scottish physicist best known for his formulationScottish physicist best known for his formulation
of electromagnetic theory.of electromagnetic theory.
Incorporated light and wave phenomena intoIncorporated light and wave phenomena into
electromagnetismelectromagnetism
FAMOUS MAXWELL,S EQUATIONSFAMOUS MAXWELL,S EQUATIONS
22. Electricity and Magnetism
In 1905 Einstein’s special theory ofIn 1905 Einstein’s special theory of
relativity showed that electricity andrelativity showed that electricity and
magnetism were link and that Maxwell wasmagnetism were link and that Maxwell was
correct.correct.
The single force of Electromagnetism isThe single force of Electromagnetism is
born.born.
23. Electroweak Force
Sheldon GlashowSheldon Glashow
Abdus SalamAbdus Salam
Steven WeinbergSteven Weinberg
Each physicist independently found that theEach physicist independently found that the
weak nuclear force could be unified withweak nuclear force could be unified with
electromagnetic force.electromagnetic force.
24. Electroweak Force
At extremely high energies, 10At extremely high energies, 101515
GeV theGeV the
electromagnetic and weak forces become theelectromagnetic and weak forces become the
same.same.
The relationship is based on the exchange ofThe relationship is based on the exchange of
four particles: the photon of EM interactions,four particles: the photon of EM interactions,
two charged W particles and a neutral Ztwo charged W particles and a neutral Z
particle.particle.
27. Strong Nuclear Force
Quantum Chromo dynamics was developed toQuantum Chromo dynamics was developed to
explain strong force during the 1970s.explain strong force during the 1970s.
Quarks are believed interact by exchangingQuarks are believed interact by exchanging
gluons.gluons.
The hope is to use that similarity to unify strongThe hope is to use that similarity to unify strong
with electroweak force.with electroweak force.
The unification cannot be found because energyThe unification cannot be found because energy
levels 10levels 101212
higher than those needed to develop thehigher than those needed to develop the
electroweak force are required to test furtherelectroweak force are required to test further
unification.unification.
29. Gravity
Newton showed that bothNewton showed that both
astronomical and terrestrial motion could beastronomical and terrestrial motion could be
explained with gravitationexplained with gravitation
In 1915 Einstein’s theory of general relativityIn 1915 Einstein’s theory of general relativity
was written in which concept on Anti Gravity &was written in which concept on Anti Gravity &
Black hole was given .Black hole was given .
Einstein spent 30 years trying to unify EM withEinstein spent 30 years trying to unify EM with
gravity and failed.gravity and failed.
30. General Relativity
The equivalence principle:The equivalence principle:
gravity and acceleration are equivalent –gravity and acceleration are equivalent –
i.e., one cannot discriminate betweeni.e., one cannot discriminate between
being at rest in a gravitational field andbeing at rest in a gravitational field and
being accelerated in the absence ofbeing accelerated in the absence of
gravitygravity
32. General Relativity
Mass causes space-time to curve:Mass causes space-time to curve:
Imagine space-time as a four-Imagine space-time as a four-
dimensional rubber sheet. Any objectdimensional rubber sheet. Any object
with mass causes this sheet to becomewith mass causes this sheet to become
deformed.deformed.
33. General Relativity
The curvature of space-time tells matterThe curvature of space-time tells matter
how to move:how to move:
What we perceive as gravity arisesWhat we perceive as gravity arises
from the curvature of space-time.from the curvature of space-time.
Masses follow the ‘straightestMasses follow the ‘straightest
possible paths’ possible given thepossible paths’ possible given the
curvature.curvature.
34. Escape velocity from a black hole
Remember (from Chapter 5) the escapeRemember (from Chapter 5) the escape
velocity is given byvelocity is given by
vvescesc = [2GM/R]= [2GM/R]1/21/2
what if the escape velocity was equalwhat if the escape velocity was equal
to the speed of light?to the speed of light?
this would set a maximum radius forthis would set a maximum radius for
which light could escape from anwhich light could escape from an
object with a given massobject with a given mass
35.
36. The Schwarzschild radiusThe Schwarzschild radius
vv22
escesc = [2GM/R]= [2GM/R]= c= c22
RRSS = 2GM/c= 2GM/c22
or Ror RSS = [3.0 x M/M= [3.0 x M/Msunsun] km] km
37. The Schwarzschild radius
the larger the mass of a black hole, thethe larger the mass of a black hole, the
larger the Schwarzschild radiuslarger the Schwarzschild radius
once light or any object has crossed theonce light or any object has crossed the
Schwarzschild radius (or event horizon), itSchwarzschild radius (or event horizon), it
can never escape the force of gravity of thecan never escape the force of gravity of the
black hole.black hole.
38.
39. Black holes have no hair
all information about the material thatall information about the material that
is inside the event horizon of a blackis inside the event horizon of a black
hole is lost,hole is lost, exceptexcept
massmass
chargecharge
angular momentumangular momentum
40. Black hole Entropy Theorem
The total amount of information (entropy)The total amount of information (entropy)
in the Universe cannot decrease (secondin the Universe cannot decrease (second
law of thermodynamics)law of thermodynamics)
this is what lead Bekenstein and Hawkingthis is what lead Bekenstein and Hawking
to the idea that Black holes must radiateto the idea that Black holes must radiate
41. Falling into a black hole
stretched by tidal forcesstretched by tidal forces
time slows downtime slows down
radiation is redshiftedradiation is redshifted
42. Observational Evidence
there is evidence that black holes formedthere is evidence that black holes formed
from collapsed stars exist in some X-rayfrom collapsed stars exist in some X-ray
binariesbinaries
most promising candidate:most promising candidate:
Cygnus X-1: 18 MCygnus X-1: 18 Msunsun star orbiting anstar orbiting an
unseen companion with a mass of 10 Munseen companion with a mass of 10 Msunsun
too massive to be a neutron star and tootoo massive to be a neutron star and too
small to be an ordinary starsmall to be an ordinary star
43. Supermassive Black Holes
there is very good evidence from thethere is very good evidence from the
motions of stars and gas near the centers ofmotions of stars and gas near the centers of
galaxies that most galaxies (including ourgalaxies that most galaxies (including our
own) contain ‘supermassive black holes’ –own) contain ‘supermassive black holes’ –
black holes weighing millions to billions ofblack holes weighing millions to billions of
solar massessolar masses
how these objects formed is still somethinghow these objects formed is still something
of a mystery…of a mystery…
44. White holes, Wormholes, and
tunnels through hyperspace
black holes are only one of the severalblack holes are only one of the several
kinds of singularities in the equations ofkinds of singularities in the equations of
general relativitygeneral relativity
white holes are sort of like the opposite ofwhite holes are sort of like the opposite of
black holesblack holes
a wormhole is a black hole connecting to aa wormhole is a black hole connecting to a
white holewhite hole
48. Gravity may be unified by superstring theory,Gravity may be unified by superstring theory,
which is the best theory right now for unification.which is the best theory right now for unification.
Higher energy experiments are needed to study theHigher energy experiments are needed to study the
strong nuclear force and its unification withstrong nuclear force and its unification with
electroweak.electroweak.
More study of electroweak is still needed. ByMore study of electroweak is still needed. By
using the simplest version of the theory ausing the simplest version of the theory a
calculation was performed that determined acalculation was performed that determined a
proton life several orders of magnitude too short,proton life several orders of magnitude too short,
from 10from 102929
to 10to 103131
years.years.
show that the life of a proton is greater thanshow that the life of a proton is greater than
10103232
years. which means that one protonyears. which means that one proton
decay vs.decay vs. 10103232
show that the life of a proton isshow that the life of a proton is
greater than 10greater than 103232
years. which means that oneyears. which means that one
proton decay vs. 10 to the power 32/ yearproton decay vs. 10 to the power 32/ year
49. Why is the Universe made of matter
and not equally of anti-matter?
We have seen that for every fundamental particle thereWe have seen that for every fundamental particle there
is a corresponding antiparticle.is a corresponding antiparticle.
Where are these anti-particles?Where are these anti-particles?
Large amount of matter but no evidence of largeLarge amount of matter but no evidence of large
amount of antimatter in the Universe .Good Luck!amount of antimatter in the Universe .Good Luck!
Otherwise Existence of Universe is not possible.Otherwise Existence of Universe is not possible.....
50. Why has all the anti-matter gone?
Anti-matter
The development of the Universe containing
matter and no antimatter requires that
matter and antimatter behave differently
This phenomenon is due to CP violation..
matter Puff
Good thing for us that there is no antimatter around!
51. CP Violation
CCPP == CCharge Conjugation (reverse charge) xharge Conjugation (reverse charge) x PParity (reversearity (reverse
spatial coordinates as in a mirror)spatial coordinates as in a mirror)
CPCP
beauty anti-beauty
B0 B0
“Nobody
is perfect”
CP-Violation: B0
and B0
do not behave exactly in the same
way (their decay pattern as a function of time is different)
For GUTS CP(OK),CPT(not ok) THAT IS Direction reversal
symmetry breaks down.
52. 53
The String Theory: The Wholly GrailThe String Theory: The Wholly Grail
A theory to unify quantumA theory to unify quantum
mechanics and general relativitymechanics and general relativity
(all known forces).(all known forces).
Every particle boils down toEvery particle boils down to
vibrating strings .vibrating strings .
The difference in vibrationalThe difference in vibrational
strings makes up each atom andstrings makes up each atom and
gives them their properties.gives them their properties.
All forces (and phenomena) inAll forces (and phenomena) in
existence described in oneexistence described in one
equation. (Space time unification)equation. (Space time unification)
Emission & Absorption ofEmission & Absorption of
particles take place through openparticles take place through open
and close strings like two legs in aand close strings like two legs in a
trouser, upper one , lower two ,trouser, upper one , lower two ,
some times open ,some timessome times open ,some times
close.close.
54. STRING THEORY
String theory offers us surprises ofString theory offers us surprises of
comparable magnitude.comparable magnitude.
The elements in Einstein’s synthesis wereThe elements in Einstein’s synthesis were
space and time.space and time.
The surprising synthesis emerging fromThe surprising synthesis emerging from
String theory in the last decade or soString theory in the last decade or so
involves two other familiar elements of ourinvolves two other familiar elements of our
experience : Light and Gravity.experience : Light and Gravity.
55. Maxwell’s Electromagnetic theory of light ( pre-20’thMaxwell’s Electromagnetic theory of light ( pre-20’th
century ) when developed to incorporate the insights ofcentury ) when developed to incorporate the insights of
quantum mechanics and relativity ( early 20’th century )quantum mechanics and relativity ( early 20’th century )
gives rise to a new framework :gives rise to a new framework :
Quantum field theory ( QFT )Quantum field theory ( QFT )
–– mid-20’th centurymid-20’th century
56. Light and Photons
In QFT, light can be viewed as anIn QFT, light can be viewed as an
elementary particle, called the photonelementary particle, called the photon
QFT provides a new way to understand forceQFT provides a new way to understand force
: Force is due to the exchange of elementary: Force is due to the exchange of elementary
particlesparticles
Electric Force between particles e.g.Electric Force between particles e.g.
electrons is due to the exchange of photons (electrons is due to the exchange of photons (
light )light )
57. Hence QFT is the language of the Standard model ofHence QFT is the language of the Standard model of
Particle Physics (discovered by Weinberg andParticle Physics (discovered by Weinberg and
Salam ) which has been tested to extremely highSalam ) which has been tested to extremely high
accuracy in accelerators around the world.accuracy in accelerators around the world.
58. QFT and Strong Force
Electrons spread to the outskirts of atoms. TheElectrons spread to the outskirts of atoms. The
core of atoms consists of nuclei, made of protonscore of atoms consists of nuclei, made of protons
and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are themselvesand neutrons. Protons and neutrons are themselves
made of quarks.made of quarks.
QFT can also account for sub-nuclear forcesQFT can also account for sub-nuclear forces
between quarks.between quarks.
The mediators of the ( strong ) force betweenThe mediators of the ( strong ) force between
quarks are gluons.quarks are gluons.
59. Photons, Gluons , Large N
Photons – force between electric charge.Photons – force between electric charge.
One kind of charge ( one number, positive orOne kind of charge ( one number, positive or
negative ) . One kind of photon.negative ) . One kind of photon.
Quarks come in 3 colours. Hence gluons come inQuarks come in 3 colours. Hence gluons come in
multiple types, depending on which quarks theymultiple types, depending on which quarks they
mediate between.mediate between.
A simple mathematical generalization consists ofA simple mathematical generalization consists of
imagining theories with N quarks and N^2 gluons.imagining theories with N quarks and N^2 gluons.
60. WHY STRINGS ?
QFT , while successful in describingQFT , while successful in describing
electromagnetic and sub-nuclear forces, is not soelectromagnetic and sub-nuclear forces, is not so
successful in describing the force of gravity.successful in describing the force of gravity.
Rather we need String Theory, which is a newRather we need String Theory, which is a new
paradigm whereby fundamental constituents of theparadigm whereby fundamental constituents of the
world are lines – not points.world are lines – not points.
A multiplicity of particles arises from differentA multiplicity of particles arises from different
vibration modes of the same string.vibration modes of the same string.
61. Weak Gravity
In the limit of weak gravity, weIn the limit of weak gravity, we
recover Newton’s gravity, whichrecover Newton’s gravity, which
describes most planetary orbits todescribes most planetary orbits to
reasonable accuracy.reasonable accuracy.
62. Strong Gravity
In the limit of strong gravity, the EinsteinIn the limit of strong gravity, the Einstein
equations describe black holes …equations describe black holes …
•ON very large cosmological scales, it describes the
expansion of the Universe.
63. A String duality between
Light and Gravity
In string theory, light ( and its large NIn string theory, light ( and its large N
generalization ) arises from the same object asgeneralization ) arises from the same object as
gravitons. This leads to the unexpected relation :gravitons. This leads to the unexpected relation :
Gravity for space-time in the shape of a solid ballGravity for space-time in the shape of a solid ball
in five dimensions is equivalent to a theory within five dimensions is equivalent to a theory with
no gravitons but with large N-light propagating onno gravitons but with large N-light propagating on
the four dimensional surfacethe four dimensional surface
of the ball.of the ball.
64. STRING : gluon and graviton
Vibrations of an open string give rise to gluons.Vibrations of an open string give rise to gluons.
Vibrations of closed string -- graviton ( since 70’s )Vibrations of closed string -- graviton ( since 70’s )
65. Gravitons and Gravity
Graviton exchange .… force of gravity.Graviton exchange .… force of gravity.
Charges replaced by masses.Charges replaced by masses.
Photon replaced by graviton.Photon replaced by graviton.
By using symmetries of the stringBy using symmetries of the string
world-sheet, one can recover the equationsworld-sheet, one can recover the equations
of general relativity.of general relativity.
66. 67
Problems With The String TheoryProblems With The String Theory
Theory included a particle (a Tachyon) that was faster than theTheory included a particle (a Tachyon) that was faster than the
speed of light.speed of light.
Theory required multiple dimensions like 10 or 26 space timeTheory required multiple dimensions like 10 or 26 space time
dimensionsdimensions. More be the dimensions lesser be the curve , sple. More be the dimensions lesser be the curve , sple
be the motion, easily understandable.be the motion, easily understandable.
No observation or experiment could discount the theory.No observation or experiment could discount the theory.
The mass-less particle. Later proposed as the graviton. AThe mass-less particle. Later proposed as the graviton. A
particle that governs gravity at atomic level and ultimatelyparticle that governs gravity at atomic level and ultimately
decided how small the strings are.decided how small the strings are.
If an atom were the size of the solar system, a string would beIf an atom were the size of the solar system, a string would be
the size of a tree.the size of a tree.
67. 68
The String Theory ExpandsThe String Theory Expands
If we could master the rhythms of strings thenIf we could master the rhythms of strings then
we could explain all the matter, forces, andwe could explain all the matter, forces, and
phenomena in nature from the biggest thingsphenomena in nature from the biggest things
(planets, galaxies) to the smallest quantum(planets, galaxies) to the smallest quantum
particles.-Idea if Higgs that is H particle particleparticles.-Idea if Higgs that is H particle particle
in universe that is between earth & sun isin universe that is between earth & sun is
equivalent to Gluon exchange betweenequivalent to Gluon exchange between Quarks.Quarks.
68. 69
The Possibilities are InfiniteThe Possibilities are Infinite
11 dimensions were needed for the 511 dimensions were needed for the 5
string theories to combine into one.string theories to combine into one.
Multi-dimensions are at the heart of theMulti-dimensions are at the heart of the
string theory.string theory.
The degrees of freedom we (and what weThe degrees of freedom we (and what we
can observe) have locked us in to threecan observe) have locked us in to three
dimensions of space and one of time.dimensions of space and one of time.
While strings do not have the sameWhile strings do not have the same
limitations they can traverse all 11limitations they can traverse all 11
dimensions.dimensions.
The 11The 11thth
dimension allows strings todimension allows strings to
stretch into membranes that can grow tostretch into membranes that can grow to
enormous sizes (like the size of aenormous sizes (like the size of a
universe).universe).
Eleven dimensions, parallel
universes, and a world made out
of strings. It's not science fiction,
it's string theory.
69. 70
Science or PhilosophyScience or Philosophy
We live in a three dimensional plateWe live in a three dimensional plate
that traverses a 11 dimensional spatialthat traverses a 11 dimensional spatial
universe.universe.
It is conceivable that our universe isIt is conceivable that our universe is
just one membrane that is a part ofjust one membrane that is a part of
an infinite number of membranes.an infinite number of membranes.
However, those membranes couldHowever, those membranes could
reside in 5, 6, or 7 dimensions.reside in 5, 6, or 7 dimensions.
Therefore, they could be right next toTherefore, they could be right next to
us but our three dimensionalus but our three dimensional
existence could never interact withexistence could never interact with
them, but strings could.them, but strings could.
Multi dimensions could explain whyMulti dimensions could explain why
gravity is so weak in our universe.gravity is so weak in our universe.
Gravity could be just as strong as theGravity could be just as strong as the
other forces, but gravity could be aother forces, but gravity could be a
force that works in 5 or 6 dimensionsforce that works in 5 or 6 dimensions
and is weak in our three dimensionaland is weak in our three dimensional
space.space.
70. 71
Implications for E.T.Implications for E.T.
The theory has pre-bigThe theory has pre-big
bang explanations.bang explanations.
Two membranes in a fourTwo membranes in a four
dimensional space collideddimensional space collided
and all the laws, constants,and all the laws, constants,
and make up from the twoand make up from the two
four dimensionalfour dimensional
membranes combined intomembranes combined into
our existence.our existence.
There is no reason why lifeThere is no reason why life
(intelligent) has to be(intelligent) has to be
limited to four dimensions.limited to four dimensions.
71. 72
More Implications for E.T.More Implications for E.T.
Would a proven theory make it harder or easier to search forWould a proven theory make it harder or easier to search for
Everything.Everything.
Would this expand our possibilities?Would this expand our possibilities?
The theory accounts for hyperspace, traveling faster thanThe theory accounts for hyperspace, traveling faster than
light, multiple dimensions, strings traversing differentlight, multiple dimensions, strings traversing different
universes.universes.
Will the theory help inWill the theory help in finding bacterial lifefinding bacterial life forms since it canforms since it can
determine the behavior of basically everything at its core (i.e.determine the behavior of basically everything at its core (i.e.
where certain particles, bacteria, is limited to, how naturewhere certain particles, bacteria, is limited to, how nature
“picks” certain molecules)?“picks” certain molecules)?
Will knowing the behavior of everything about our fourWill knowing the behavior of everything about our four
dimensional universe help us flesh out where we should lookdimensional universe help us flesh out where we should look
in our Multi dimensional universe?in our Multi dimensional universe?
Can the theory go far enough to determine how humansCan the theory go far enough to determine how humans
came to be and the possibilities of it happening elsewhere?came to be and the possibilities of it happening elsewhere?
72. Kaluza-Klein theory
Kaluza-Klein added one extra spatialKaluza-Klein added one extra spatial
dimension to our conventional space-dimension to our conventional space-
time.time.
Introduced 5-D metric tensor , which
can be decomposed into two parts
73.
74. What have we learnt?
A number of surprising things:A number of surprising things:
A limited number ofA limited number of forces and matter particlesforces and matter particles
describe all the Universe we know about;describe all the Universe we know about;
A theory of the interactions of matter with forces calledA theory of the interactions of matter with forces called
thethe Standard ModelStandard Model describes successfully thedescribes successfully the
phenomena of the subatomic world;phenomena of the subatomic world;
There are evidences that there is lot more that we doThere are evidences that there is lot more that we do
not know about and our research should find: such asnot know about and our research should find: such as
thethe missing anti-mattermissing anti-matter,, dark matterdark matter,, puzzling neutrinopuzzling neutrino
properties, but also the Standard Model key-vault ..theproperties, but also the Standard Model key-vault ..the
HiggsHiggs!!
75. Looking into the future
The Higgs should be found at the LHC…The Higgs should be found at the LHC…
please be patient for a few moreplease be patient for a few more
hours….and you will learn about the Higgs,hours….and you will learn about the Higgs,
the LHC, and much more!the LHC, and much more!
NOT
76. Conclusion
Physicists are trying to find a single theory thatPhysicists are trying to find a single theory that
explains the whole universe. I think that there willexplains the whole universe. I think that there will
always be some gaps.always be some gaps. The part of the universe thatThe part of the universe that
we can perceive is very small compared to the partwe can perceive is very small compared to the part
we can notwe can not. Cosmological observations (e.g., dark. Cosmological observations (e.g., dark
matter, dark energy,…) indicate that we are stillmatter, dark energy,…) indicate that we are still
crawling under the mountain of a single unifiedcrawling under the mountain of a single unified
theorytheory
77. Conclusion (Continued)
Physics at TeV scale likely to be richPhysics at TeV scale likely to be rich
To fully understand it, we will likely needTo fully understand it, we will likely need aa
lotlot of detailed informationof detailed information
LC will study new particles one by oneLC will study new particles one by one
⇒⇒ reconstruct the fundamental Lagrangianreconstruct the fundamental Lagrangian
Then we would like to move on further withThen we would like to move on further with
absolute confidenceabsolute confidence
78. Dark Matter likely to be TeV-scaleDark Matter likely to be TeV-scale
electrically neutral weakly interactingelectrically neutral weakly interacting
particle (particle (e.g.e.g., LSP, Lightest KK), LSP, Lightest KK)
With LC, measure its mass, couplingsWith LC, measure its mass, couplings
Can calculate its cosmic abundanceCan calculate its cosmic abundance
If it agrees with cosmological observation,If it agrees with cosmological observation,
we understand Universe back to 10we understand Universe back to 10–12–12
secsec
after the Big Bangafter the Big Bang
Produce Dark Matter
79. 80
References and InformationReferences and Information
http://superstringtheory.com/experm/exper3.html - Basics of String Theoryhttp://superstringtheory.com/experm/exper3.html - Basics of String Theory
http://superstringtheory.com/basics/basic5.html - Basics of String Theoryhttp://superstringtheory.com/basics/basic5.html - Basics of String Theory
http://www.sukidog.com/jpierre/strings/ - Basics of String Theoryhttp://www.sukidog.com/jpierre/strings/ - Basics of String Theory
Superstrings: A Theory of Everything?Superstrings: A Theory of Everything?, ed. P.C.W. Davies and J. Brown, Cambridge, ed. P.C.W. Davies and J. Brown, Cambridge
University Press, 1988;University Press, 1988;
E. Witten, Reflections on the Fate of Spacetime, Physics Today, April 1996.E. Witten, Reflections on the Fate of Spacetime, Physics Today, April 1996.
http://public.web.cern.ch/Public/Welcome.html - CERN Websitehttp://public.web.cern.ch/Public/Welcome.html - CERN Website
Hyperspace: A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universe, Time Warps, And The TenthHyperspace: A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universe, Time Warps, And The Tenth
DimensionDimension by Michio Kakuby Michio Kaku
The Elegant Universe; Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, And The Quest For The UltimateThe Elegant Universe; Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, And The Quest For The Ultimate
TheoryTheory by Brian Greeneby Brian Greene
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"Electromagnetism.""Electromagnetism." Encyclopædia Britannica.Encyclopædia Britannica. 2004. Online. Retrieved 10 May 20042004. Online. Retrieved 10 May 2004
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Light : Maxwell – reflection, refraction, diffraction, rainbows, interference …
An acronym and a picture : picture encodes a lot of key concepts of QFT --- lines describing microscopic particles in spacetime ; different particles – different kinds of line ; arrows on lines – particle and antiparticle :
Light of fixed frequency consists of photons of fixed energy ( Planck’s relation ) ; Absorption if
The additional dimensions are curled up such that you can’t go, say, more than 10^-40 cm without returning to the same point.
Note that the fourth dimension is a space dimension
this was entirely a classical theory with the only goal of deriving
both Maxwell’s electromagnetic formulas and Einstein’s general relativity
from a singe field.
Nevertheless, the temptation to tinker with the dimensionality of nature has
proved irresistible to physicists over the years. The main reason for this is
that phenomena which require very different explanations in three-dimensional
space can often be shown to be manifestations of simpler theories in higher-
dimensional manifolds.