The standard model of particle physics attempts to describe the fundamental interactions of nature. It classifies all known elementary particles and their interactions via gauge bosons that mediate four fundamental forces. While successful, it is limited and does not account for gravity, dark matter, neutrino masses, inflation, or the asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the universe. Many theories beyond the standard model have been proposed to address its limitations, such as supersymmetry, grand unification, string theory, and others.
This document provides an introduction to particle physics, including:
- A brief history of discoveries of the elementary constituents of matter like protons, neutrons, electrons.
- An overview of the four fundamental forces and how they control particle behavior.
- Explanations of conservation laws, neutrino theory, and early experiments verifying mass-energy equivalence.
- Descriptions of the Standard Model of particle families, forces, the quark model, and antimatter discoveries.
The document provides an overview of the Standard Model of particle physics, which describes the fundamental particles and forces. It explains that particles are made up of even smaller particles called quarks and electrons. Forces are carried by particles called force carriers, such as photons for electromagnetism and gluons for the strong force. The Standard Model includes three generations of matter particles that are duplicates of the first generation but with increasing mass. While the Standard Model is very successful, it leaves many questions unanswered which has led physicists to develop new theories and search for new particles.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and most powerful particle collider located at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland. Built between 1998 and 2008 by over 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries, the LHC lies in a 27-kilometer tunnel up to 175 meters underground. Physicists use the LHC to study the collisions of beams of hadrons (protons and heavy ions) circulating at nearly the speed of light to investigate fundamental questions in physics, such as the Higgs mechanism, supersymmetry, extra dimensions, and dark matter. The LHC led to the 2012 discovery of the Higgs boson and continues making new discoveries through high-energy collisions analyzed using detectors like AT
The Higgs boson is the last “missing piece” of the Standard Model and the 5th member of the boson family (but not a force carrier).
The Higgs is a hypothetical particle that gives mass to all other particles that normally have mass.
The Higgs particle creates a Higgs field that permeates spacetime.
The Higgs particle and its corresponding field are critical to the understanding and validation of the SM, since the Higgs is deemed responsible for giving particles their mass.
The elusive Higgs is so central to the SM and the theory on which the whole understanding of matter is based, if the Higgs does not exist (is not detected), we will not be able to explain the origin of mass.
Numerous people chat quietly in a fairly crowded room.
Rajnikanth enters the room causing a disturbance in the field.
Followers cluster and surround Rajnikanth as this group of people forms a “massive object”.
Elementary particles are the most basic building blocks of the universe that do not have any substructure. They include electrons, protons, neutrons, photons, and more recently discovered particles like quarks. Historically, electrons, protons, and neutrons were thought to be elementary, but further research found them to be made up of even smaller particles like quarks. Elementary particles can be classified as fermions or bosons based on their spin, and as leptons, hadrons, baryons, or mesons based on their interactions. The Standard Model currently describes 12 fundamental matter particle types along with their antiparticles and force carrier particles that mediate the fundamental forces.
There are two types of elementary particles: fermions and bosons. Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle and have half-integer spin, while bosons do not obey PEP and have integer or zero spin. Fermions are further divided into leptons, which do not feel the strong force, and quarks, which do feel the strong force. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, which are divided into baryons containing three quarks and mesons containing two quarks. The four fundamental forces are electromagnetic, strong, weak, and gravity, and are mediated by gauge bosons.
The standard model of particle physics attempts to describe the fundamental interactions of nature. It classifies all known elementary particles and their interactions via gauge bosons that mediate four fundamental forces. While successful, it is limited and does not account for gravity, dark matter, neutrino masses, inflation, or the asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the universe. Many theories beyond the standard model have been proposed to address its limitations, such as supersymmetry, grand unification, string theory, and others.
This document provides an introduction to particle physics, including:
- A brief history of discoveries of the elementary constituents of matter like protons, neutrons, electrons.
- An overview of the four fundamental forces and how they control particle behavior.
- Explanations of conservation laws, neutrino theory, and early experiments verifying mass-energy equivalence.
- Descriptions of the Standard Model of particle families, forces, the quark model, and antimatter discoveries.
The document provides an overview of the Standard Model of particle physics, which describes the fundamental particles and forces. It explains that particles are made up of even smaller particles called quarks and electrons. Forces are carried by particles called force carriers, such as photons for electromagnetism and gluons for the strong force. The Standard Model includes three generations of matter particles that are duplicates of the first generation but with increasing mass. While the Standard Model is very successful, it leaves many questions unanswered which has led physicists to develop new theories and search for new particles.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and most powerful particle collider located at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland. Built between 1998 and 2008 by over 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries, the LHC lies in a 27-kilometer tunnel up to 175 meters underground. Physicists use the LHC to study the collisions of beams of hadrons (protons and heavy ions) circulating at nearly the speed of light to investigate fundamental questions in physics, such as the Higgs mechanism, supersymmetry, extra dimensions, and dark matter. The LHC led to the 2012 discovery of the Higgs boson and continues making new discoveries through high-energy collisions analyzed using detectors like AT
The Higgs boson is the last “missing piece” of the Standard Model and the 5th member of the boson family (but not a force carrier).
The Higgs is a hypothetical particle that gives mass to all other particles that normally have mass.
The Higgs particle creates a Higgs field that permeates spacetime.
The Higgs particle and its corresponding field are critical to the understanding and validation of the SM, since the Higgs is deemed responsible for giving particles their mass.
The elusive Higgs is so central to the SM and the theory on which the whole understanding of matter is based, if the Higgs does not exist (is not detected), we will not be able to explain the origin of mass.
Numerous people chat quietly in a fairly crowded room.
Rajnikanth enters the room causing a disturbance in the field.
Followers cluster and surround Rajnikanth as this group of people forms a “massive object”.
Elementary particles are the most basic building blocks of the universe that do not have any substructure. They include electrons, protons, neutrons, photons, and more recently discovered particles like quarks. Historically, electrons, protons, and neutrons were thought to be elementary, but further research found them to be made up of even smaller particles like quarks. Elementary particles can be classified as fermions or bosons based on their spin, and as leptons, hadrons, baryons, or mesons based on their interactions. The Standard Model currently describes 12 fundamental matter particle types along with their antiparticles and force carrier particles that mediate the fundamental forces.
There are two types of elementary particles: fermions and bosons. Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle and have half-integer spin, while bosons do not obey PEP and have integer or zero spin. Fermions are further divided into leptons, which do not feel the strong force, and quarks, which do feel the strong force. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, which are divided into baryons containing three quarks and mesons containing two quarks. The four fundamental forces are electromagnetic, strong, weak, and gravity, and are mediated by gauge bosons.
This Presentation include
-Introduction to Plasma Physics.
-Plasma: Fourth State of Matter.
-Comparison of Plasma and Gas Phase.
-Fusion Energy
-Future of Plasma Physics.
-Applications.
-Btech Science Fair, RKGIT Ghaziabad
The document discusses the history of particle physics and the development of the Standard Model of particle physics. It describes how particles like electrons, protons, neutrons were discovered and how the atomic model evolved. Experiments at particle accelerators revealed more fundamental particles that were grouped into families and the three quark model was developed. The Higgs mechanism was proposed to explain how fundamental particles acquire mass through interacting with the hypothesized Higgs field. The Large Hadron Collider was built at CERN to search for the predicted but not yet observed Higgs boson and potentially discover signs of new physics like supersymmetry.
CERN operates the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), a particle accelerator that was built to study fundamental subatomic particles and recreate conditions similar to those shortly after the Big Bang. The LHC accelerates beams of hadrons, which are particles composed of quarks, and causes the beams to collide within the 27 kilometer circumference accelerator. Scientists hope these high-energy collisions will help answer questions about the universe and allow observation of what occurred after the Big Bang and what may happen in the future evolution of the universe.
This document discusses elementary particles and their classification. It begins with a brief history of elementary particles dating back to Democritus' idea of atoms. It then describes the four fundamental forces and some of the key particles discovered over time, including the electron, photon, neutron, and neutrino. The document classifies particles as fermions or bosons based on their statistics and behavior. It provides details on leptons, quarks, mesons, and baryons - the main constituents of matter. In closing, it mentions neutrinos, glueballs, and the interface between particle physics and cosmology.
-Neutrino-
It's believed that modern physics nothing can travel faster than the speed of light. The astonishing results of the experiment seem to show that elementary particle Neutrinos, Can. It’s the most spread particles and the lightest. Neutrino is a hardly reacting with matter, It can travel right through the earth without interacting, As an example 70 billion Neutrinos per square second continue coming from the sun. These Neutrino parts traveled through the Earth Crust to the detection point and they synchronized between the 2 points to the nearest Nanno second (A billion of a second) in this distance, they discovered that the neutrino were 60 seconds ahead of what light takes to cover this distance. It's the first time we have an experimental evidence something faster than light and that will make a major change in physics as we know it now.
Particle physics is the branch of physics that studies subatomic particles and their interactions. By 1932, the four known elementary particles were the electron, proton, photon, and neutron. Elementary particles are the fundamental building blocks of the universe and have well-documented properties including mass, charge, spin, and lifetime. Some particles decay into others of smaller mass through weak interactions. Quarks are elementary particles that combine to form composite hadrons like protons and neutrons, and have properties like charge, mass, and six flavors including up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. Strangeness is a quantum number denoting the presence of a strange quark and is conserved in strong and electromagnetic interactions.
The document discusses the Higgs boson particle and its significance in fundamental physics. It explores how the concept of the "god particle" emerged and led to the development of the Standard Model. The Higgs boson is the only particle in the Standard Model that has not been observed. Finding evidence of the Higgs boson would complete the Standard Model and help explain the origin of mass. Large experiments like the LHC were built to detect the rare Higgs boson and gain insights into fundamental forces and particles.
The document presents a high-level overview of the Standard Model of particle physics in a series of clickable slides, describing the basic subatomic particles like electrons, protons, and neutrons that make up atoms as well as force carrier particles like photons and gluons that enable interactions between fermions. It also discusses theoretical particles like the Higgs boson and graviton that could help explain fundamental forces and properties like mass. The slides pose additional questions about applying the model to heavier generations of particles and alternative atomic structures.
The Higgs boson is an elementary particle that is responsible for giving mass to other particles. It was proposed in 1964 and discovered in 2012 at CERN's Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland. The Higgs boson is extremely short-lived, decaying within one billionth of a trillionth of a second. Its discovery helps scientists better understand how particles acquire mass and could provide insights into cosmic inflation, dark matter, and the composition of the universe.
Particle Physics, CERN and the Large Hadron Colliderjuanrojochacon
The document discusses particle physics research done at CERN's Large Hadron Collider (LHC). It describes the LHC as the most powerful particle accelerator ever built, with a 27 km long tunnel housing detectors that observe proton collisions at very high energies. One of the LHC's major discoveries was the Higgs boson particle in 2012. The document outlines how the LHC allows scientists to study the fundamental building blocks of matter at the smallest observable scales.
This document discusses elementary particles and their classification. It states that quarks are currently believed to be fundamental particles as they are not made of anything smaller. It provides classifications for elementary particles such as hadrons, baryons, mesons, and leptons. It also discusses nuclear quantum numbers, conservation laws in interactions between elementary particles, and provides an example question.
This document provides an overview of elementary particles. It discusses their classification into baryons, leptons, and mesons. Baryons include protons, neutrons, and heavier hyperons. Leptons contain electrons, photons, neutrinos, and muons. Mesons have masses between baryons and leptons. Each particle is described along with its properties. The document also discusses particles and their antiparticles, and conservation laws related to parity, charge conjugation, time reversal, and the combined CPT symmetry.
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Atoms and Periodic Table of the Elements unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 2000+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 12 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 15 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow are meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and review questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation.
Areas of Focus: -Atoms (Atomic Force Microscopes), Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment, Cathode Tube, Atoms, Fundamental Particles, The Nucleus, Isotopes, AMU, Size of Atoms and Particles, Quarks, Recipe of the Universe, Atomic Theory, Atomic Symbols, #'s, Valence Electrons, Octet Rule, SPONCH Atoms, Molecules, Hydrocarbons (Structure), Alcohols (Structure), Proteins (Structure), Periodic Table of the Elements, Organization of Periodic Table, Transition Metals, Electron Negativity, Non-Metals, Metals, Metalloids, Atomic Bonds, Ionic Bonds, Covalent Bonds, Metallic Bonds, Ionization, and much more.
This unit aligns with the Next Generation Science Standards and with Common Core Standards for ELA and Literacy for Science and Technical Subjects. See preview for more information
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
Teaching Duration = 4+ Weeks
The document discusses the Higgs boson particle, also known as the "God particle". It describes how the particle was theorized in 1964 by Peter Higgs and others to help explain how elementary particles acquire mass. Researchers at CERN used the Large Hadron Collider to finally detect the Higgs boson in 2012 through high-energy collisions of protons, confirming its existence after decades of experiments. The discovery of the Higgs boson was a major achievement that validated the Standard Model of particle physics.
This is the presentation about The God Particle. In this ppt you will be able to get the basic information about the Higgs Boson, the experiment carried out in CERN, the result of that experiment and the motive of that experiment.
so do have a look!
This document discusses gravity and its role in shaping astronomical structures like galaxies and galaxy clusters. It describes how gravity causes stars at the edges of spiral galaxies to rotate at similar speeds to those at the center, and how galaxy clusters contain 10 times more mass than can be accounted for by visible matter alone. The document also mentions how Einstein's theory of general relativity explains the accelerating expansion of the universe driven by dark energy, which exerts a repulsive force that counteracts gravity on large scales.
The document discusses the history and development of theories of blackbody radiation and the concept of the photon. It describes how (1) classical physics could not fully explain experimental observations of blackbody radiation, (2) Planck resolved this issue by proposing that the radiation emitted by cavity walls was quantized into discrete energy packets called quanta (later known as photons), and (3) his theory accurately described blackbody radiation distribution and resolved prior inconsistencies like the ultraviolet catastrophe.
Dark matter is matter that does not emit or absorb light or radiation and can only be detected through its gravitational effects. It makes up 23% of the universe's energy. Its exact particle nature remains unknown. Dark matter was first hypothesized to account for discrepancies between the mass of large astronomical objects determined by their gravitational influence versus the mass calculated from the visible matter they contain. Understanding dark matter is important because it and dark energy make up over 90% of the universe's total energy.
Observations from the Hubble Space Telescope in 1998 showed that the universe was expanding more slowly in the past than it is today, contrary to expectations. This led scientists to propose either modifications to Einstein's theory of gravity, such as the introduction of dark energy, or the existence of an unknown type of matter, dubbed dark matter, that cannot be detected directly. Dark matter is inferred to make up about 27% of the universe based on its gravitational effects, but its exact nature remains unknown.
How the concept was introduced by the astrophycists and examples that provide the base for the existence of dark matter. Basic introduction to types of dark matter according to standard cosmological theory.
The document discusses the discovery of the Higgs boson particle, also known as the "God particle". It provides background on the development of the standard model of particle physics and the theoretical prediction of the Higgs boson. Experiments at CERN's Large Hadron Collider aimed to detect the Higgs boson, and in 2012 they announced evidence of a new boson that matches the properties of the Higgs boson, with its existence being confirmed in 2013. Finding the Higgs boson was a major milestone in understanding particle physics and mass.
This Presentation include
-Introduction to Plasma Physics.
-Plasma: Fourth State of Matter.
-Comparison of Plasma and Gas Phase.
-Fusion Energy
-Future of Plasma Physics.
-Applications.
-Btech Science Fair, RKGIT Ghaziabad
The document discusses the history of particle physics and the development of the Standard Model of particle physics. It describes how particles like electrons, protons, neutrons were discovered and how the atomic model evolved. Experiments at particle accelerators revealed more fundamental particles that were grouped into families and the three quark model was developed. The Higgs mechanism was proposed to explain how fundamental particles acquire mass through interacting with the hypothesized Higgs field. The Large Hadron Collider was built at CERN to search for the predicted but not yet observed Higgs boson and potentially discover signs of new physics like supersymmetry.
CERN operates the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), a particle accelerator that was built to study fundamental subatomic particles and recreate conditions similar to those shortly after the Big Bang. The LHC accelerates beams of hadrons, which are particles composed of quarks, and causes the beams to collide within the 27 kilometer circumference accelerator. Scientists hope these high-energy collisions will help answer questions about the universe and allow observation of what occurred after the Big Bang and what may happen in the future evolution of the universe.
This document discusses elementary particles and their classification. It begins with a brief history of elementary particles dating back to Democritus' idea of atoms. It then describes the four fundamental forces and some of the key particles discovered over time, including the electron, photon, neutron, and neutrino. The document classifies particles as fermions or bosons based on their statistics and behavior. It provides details on leptons, quarks, mesons, and baryons - the main constituents of matter. In closing, it mentions neutrinos, glueballs, and the interface between particle physics and cosmology.
-Neutrino-
It's believed that modern physics nothing can travel faster than the speed of light. The astonishing results of the experiment seem to show that elementary particle Neutrinos, Can. It’s the most spread particles and the lightest. Neutrino is a hardly reacting with matter, It can travel right through the earth without interacting, As an example 70 billion Neutrinos per square second continue coming from the sun. These Neutrino parts traveled through the Earth Crust to the detection point and they synchronized between the 2 points to the nearest Nanno second (A billion of a second) in this distance, they discovered that the neutrino were 60 seconds ahead of what light takes to cover this distance. It's the first time we have an experimental evidence something faster than light and that will make a major change in physics as we know it now.
Particle physics is the branch of physics that studies subatomic particles and their interactions. By 1932, the four known elementary particles were the electron, proton, photon, and neutron. Elementary particles are the fundamental building blocks of the universe and have well-documented properties including mass, charge, spin, and lifetime. Some particles decay into others of smaller mass through weak interactions. Quarks are elementary particles that combine to form composite hadrons like protons and neutrons, and have properties like charge, mass, and six flavors including up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. Strangeness is a quantum number denoting the presence of a strange quark and is conserved in strong and electromagnetic interactions.
The document discusses the Higgs boson particle and its significance in fundamental physics. It explores how the concept of the "god particle" emerged and led to the development of the Standard Model. The Higgs boson is the only particle in the Standard Model that has not been observed. Finding evidence of the Higgs boson would complete the Standard Model and help explain the origin of mass. Large experiments like the LHC were built to detect the rare Higgs boson and gain insights into fundamental forces and particles.
The document presents a high-level overview of the Standard Model of particle physics in a series of clickable slides, describing the basic subatomic particles like electrons, protons, and neutrons that make up atoms as well as force carrier particles like photons and gluons that enable interactions between fermions. It also discusses theoretical particles like the Higgs boson and graviton that could help explain fundamental forces and properties like mass. The slides pose additional questions about applying the model to heavier generations of particles and alternative atomic structures.
The Higgs boson is an elementary particle that is responsible for giving mass to other particles. It was proposed in 1964 and discovered in 2012 at CERN's Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland. The Higgs boson is extremely short-lived, decaying within one billionth of a trillionth of a second. Its discovery helps scientists better understand how particles acquire mass and could provide insights into cosmic inflation, dark matter, and the composition of the universe.
Particle Physics, CERN and the Large Hadron Colliderjuanrojochacon
The document discusses particle physics research done at CERN's Large Hadron Collider (LHC). It describes the LHC as the most powerful particle accelerator ever built, with a 27 km long tunnel housing detectors that observe proton collisions at very high energies. One of the LHC's major discoveries was the Higgs boson particle in 2012. The document outlines how the LHC allows scientists to study the fundamental building blocks of matter at the smallest observable scales.
This document discusses elementary particles and their classification. It states that quarks are currently believed to be fundamental particles as they are not made of anything smaller. It provides classifications for elementary particles such as hadrons, baryons, mesons, and leptons. It also discusses nuclear quantum numbers, conservation laws in interactions between elementary particles, and provides an example question.
This document provides an overview of elementary particles. It discusses their classification into baryons, leptons, and mesons. Baryons include protons, neutrons, and heavier hyperons. Leptons contain electrons, photons, neutrinos, and muons. Mesons have masses between baryons and leptons. Each particle is described along with its properties. The document also discusses particles and their antiparticles, and conservation laws related to parity, charge conjugation, time reversal, and the combined CPT symmetry.
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Atoms and Periodic Table of the Elements unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 2000+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 12 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 15 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow are meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and review questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation.
Areas of Focus: -Atoms (Atomic Force Microscopes), Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment, Cathode Tube, Atoms, Fundamental Particles, The Nucleus, Isotopes, AMU, Size of Atoms and Particles, Quarks, Recipe of the Universe, Atomic Theory, Atomic Symbols, #'s, Valence Electrons, Octet Rule, SPONCH Atoms, Molecules, Hydrocarbons (Structure), Alcohols (Structure), Proteins (Structure), Periodic Table of the Elements, Organization of Periodic Table, Transition Metals, Electron Negativity, Non-Metals, Metals, Metalloids, Atomic Bonds, Ionic Bonds, Covalent Bonds, Metallic Bonds, Ionization, and much more.
This unit aligns with the Next Generation Science Standards and with Common Core Standards for ELA and Literacy for Science and Technical Subjects. See preview for more information
If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
Teaching Duration = 4+ Weeks
The document discusses the Higgs boson particle, also known as the "God particle". It describes how the particle was theorized in 1964 by Peter Higgs and others to help explain how elementary particles acquire mass. Researchers at CERN used the Large Hadron Collider to finally detect the Higgs boson in 2012 through high-energy collisions of protons, confirming its existence after decades of experiments. The discovery of the Higgs boson was a major achievement that validated the Standard Model of particle physics.
This is the presentation about The God Particle. In this ppt you will be able to get the basic information about the Higgs Boson, the experiment carried out in CERN, the result of that experiment and the motive of that experiment.
so do have a look!
This document discusses gravity and its role in shaping astronomical structures like galaxies and galaxy clusters. It describes how gravity causes stars at the edges of spiral galaxies to rotate at similar speeds to those at the center, and how galaxy clusters contain 10 times more mass than can be accounted for by visible matter alone. The document also mentions how Einstein's theory of general relativity explains the accelerating expansion of the universe driven by dark energy, which exerts a repulsive force that counteracts gravity on large scales.
The document discusses the history and development of theories of blackbody radiation and the concept of the photon. It describes how (1) classical physics could not fully explain experimental observations of blackbody radiation, (2) Planck resolved this issue by proposing that the radiation emitted by cavity walls was quantized into discrete energy packets called quanta (later known as photons), and (3) his theory accurately described blackbody radiation distribution and resolved prior inconsistencies like the ultraviolet catastrophe.
Dark matter is matter that does not emit or absorb light or radiation and can only be detected through its gravitational effects. It makes up 23% of the universe's energy. Its exact particle nature remains unknown. Dark matter was first hypothesized to account for discrepancies between the mass of large astronomical objects determined by their gravitational influence versus the mass calculated from the visible matter they contain. Understanding dark matter is important because it and dark energy make up over 90% of the universe's total energy.
Observations from the Hubble Space Telescope in 1998 showed that the universe was expanding more slowly in the past than it is today, contrary to expectations. This led scientists to propose either modifications to Einstein's theory of gravity, such as the introduction of dark energy, or the existence of an unknown type of matter, dubbed dark matter, that cannot be detected directly. Dark matter is inferred to make up about 27% of the universe based on its gravitational effects, but its exact nature remains unknown.
How the concept was introduced by the astrophycists and examples that provide the base for the existence of dark matter. Basic introduction to types of dark matter according to standard cosmological theory.
The document discusses the discovery of the Higgs boson particle, also known as the "God particle". It provides background on the development of the standard model of particle physics and the theoretical prediction of the Higgs boson. Experiments at CERN's Large Hadron Collider aimed to detect the Higgs boson, and in 2012 they announced evidence of a new boson that matches the properties of the Higgs boson, with its existence being confirmed in 2013. Finding the Higgs boson was a major milestone in understanding particle physics and mass.
Dark matter is an invisible phenomenon that acts on visible matter through gravity. It accounts for 6 times more mass in the universe than normal matter. Fritz Zwicky discovered evidence of "invisible matter" in galaxies in 1933 while Vera Rubin provided further evidence in the 1970s, though they were initially disregarded. String theory may help explain dark matter through postulated supersymmetric particles. Dark energy is a hypothetical form that permeates space, causing accelerated expansion of the universe, and may account for most of its mass. It produces an opposite effect to gravity. String theory also provides several potential explanations for dark matter through concepts like supersymmetric particles, branes, and extra dimensions.
This document discusses dark matter and dark energy. Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter that does not emit or absorb light but has gravitational effects. Its existence can be inferred through gravitational lensing and the rotation curves of galaxies. Dark energy is theorized to be causing the accelerating expansion of the universe. Current research includes experiments trying to directly detect dark matter particles and gravitational wave observatories seeking to better understand dark energy. Future experiments such as LSST and Euclid aim to provide more data to study these mysterious components of the universe.
Everything you ever wanted to know about the LHC - Lawrence Berkeley National...swissnex San Francisco
This document discusses particle physics experiments being conducted at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) using the ATLAS detector. It outlines some of the fundamental questions in particle physics like the origin of mass and the matter-antimatter asymmetry in the early universe. It describes the basic structure of matter down to quarks and the four fundamental forces. The Standard Model is presented as the current theory, but as being incomplete. Finding the Higgs boson could help explain mass generation. The ATLAS detector is introduced as being able to observe particle collisions and decays to help uncover new physics beyond the Standard Model, like dark matter candidates.
Atoms, quanta,and qubits: Atomism in quantum mechanics and informationVasil Penchev
The original conception of atomism suggests “atoms”, which cannot be divided more into composing parts. However, the name “atom” in physics is reserved for entities, which can be divided into electrons, protons, neutrons and other “elementary particles”, some of which are in turn compounded by other, “more elementary” ones. Instead of this, quantum mechanics is grounded on the actually indivisible quanta of action limited by the fundamental Planck constant. It resolves the problem of how both discrete and continuous (even smooth) to be described uniformly and invariantly in thus. Quantum mechanics can be interpreted in terms of quantum information. Qubit is the indivisible unit (“atom”) of quantum information. The imagery of atomism in modern physics moves from atoms of matter (or energy) via “atoms” (quanta) of action to “atoms” (qubits) of quantum information. This is a conceptual shift in the cognition of reality to terms of information, choice, and time.
This document discusses elementary particles and the fundamental forces and interactions between them. It introduces the concept of elementary particles, which were originally thought to be electrons, neutrons and protons but are now known to include hundreds of unstable particles. It describes the four fundamental interactions - gravitation, electromagnetism, weak interaction and strong interaction - and the particles that mediate each force, such as photons for electromagnetism and gluons for the strong interaction. It also discusses classification of particles into bosons and fermions and concepts like conservation laws that help explain particle interactions.
1. Black holes are regions of space where gravity is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape. They form when massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycles.
2. There are two main types of black holes - static and rotating. The rotating type, known as Kerr black holes, form when collapsed stars have angular momentum.
3. As a star collapses, it passes through stages as a red giant, white dwarf, and neutron star until its mass exceeds around 3 solar masses, causing it to collapse entirely into a black hole with a singularity at its center.
This document provides an overview of dark matter and dark energy from both observational evidence in the universe and theoretical work done at particle accelerators in laboratories. It summarizes that observational evidence shows the universe is made up of 70% dark energy, 25% dark matter, and only 5% ordinary matter. While much is known about the basic features and inventory of the universe, deep puzzles remain about reconciling gravity and quantum mechanics, the nature of dark matter and dark energy, and resolving why observations of dark energy are so much smaller than theoretical predictions. The document discusses how ideas like extra dimensions, supersymmetry, and multiple compactifications in string theory attempt to address these puzzles, but that challenges remain in fully explaining dark energy and connecting theory to
- Dark matter is an invisible form of matter that accounts for approximately 27% of the matter in the universe. Its existence and properties are inferred through its gravitational effects such as the motions of visible matter and gravitational lensing. However, the exact nature and composition of dark matter remains unknown.
- Dark energy is thought to be responsible for the accelerating expansion of the universe, accounting for approximately 68% of the total mass-energy content. Its existence helps explain observations that the expansion rate of the universe is accelerating rather than slowing down. However, the exact nature and properties of dark energy are not well understood.
- Future experiments aim to directly detect dark matter particles and gather more precise cosmological data to help distinguish between theories
The document discusses the fundamental forces and particles in nature, the expanding universe, and the evidence for the Big Bang model of cosmology. It also addresses how the universe appears finely-tuned for life, proposals for the multiverse and eternal inflation to explain this tuning, and criticisms of these proposals for requiring their own finely-tuned parameters and assumptions. In conclusion, the document argues that positing an intelligent creator remains the simplest explanation.
Big Bang Theory & Other Recent Sciences || 2014 - Dr. Mahbub Khaniqra tube
RECENT SCIENCES
Big Bang, Dark Matter, Dark Energy, Black Hole, Neutrino, God Particle, Higgs Field, Graviton, Expansion of Universe, and Search for Life elsewhere in the Cosmos
The Big Bang model postulates that the universe began as a hot dense state around 13.8 billion years ago and has since expanded and cooled. It is supported by two theoretical pillars: general relativity, which describes gravity as the curvature of spacetime, and the cosmological principle that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic on large scales. The model accounts for the cosmic microwave background radiation and expansion of the universe, but is incomplete as it does not explain structure formation or the universe's uniformity on the largest scales.
Dark matter is an invisible form of matter that accounts for about 85% of the matter in the universe. It was first proposed in 1933 to explain unexpected motions of galaxies, and its existence and properties have since been further confirmed by various observations, though its exact nature remains unknown. Dark matter is distinct from dark energy, which is driving the accelerating expansion of the universe. Leading candidates for dark matter include WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles) such as neutralinos and axions.
The document discusses several key topics in cosmology and physics:
1. The fate and shape of the universe depends on factors like the amount of mass and the cosmological constant. Observable evidence suggests the expansion is accelerating.
2. Inflation theory posits that the early universe underwent extremely rapid expansion, which would explain the uniformity seen today.
3. The four fundamental forces were unified in the earliest moments. Grand unified theories aim to further combine them.
4. Some theories speculate our universe is one of many in a multiverse, with parallel universes arising from eternal inflation, quantum fluctuations, or different mathematical structures.
5. The anthropic principle notes our universe must
Rutherford's scattering experiments showed that atoms have a small, dense nucleus surrounded by electrons. This contradicted Thomson's "plum pudding" model and led to Rutherford proposing a planetary model of the atom. However, the planetary model is unstable because orbiting electrons would radiate energy according to Maxwell's equations and lose orbit. Spectroscopy experiments produced line spectra that needed to be explained by a new atomic model. Bohr proposed a new quantum mechanical model of the hydrogen atom that could account for its line spectrum.
This document discusses particle physics and summarizes key topics:
- Particle physics studies subatomic particles like protons, neutrons, electrons and other elementary particles. There are four fundamental interactions - gravitational, electromagnetic, weak and strong.
- Elementary particles are classified as bosons or fermions. Bosons have integer spin and obey Bose-Einstein statistics. Fermions have half-integer spin and obey Fermi-Dirac statistics.
- There are two types of fermions - elementary fermions like leptons and quarks, and composite fermions like hadrons. Leptons include electrons, muons and neutrinos. Quarks combine to form hadrons such as protons and neutrons.
This document provides an overview of chromodynamics and the quark model. It discusses the following key points:
- Quantum chromodynamics describes the strong force and interaction between quarks via the exchange of gluons. Quarks have a property called "color" and gluons mediate the color force.
- The quark model proposes that hadrons like baryons and mesons are composed of more fundamental particles called quarks. Early models included up, down and strange quarks.
- Additional quarks were later discovered and the color quantum number was introduced to satisfy the Pauli exclusion principle and allow different quark combinations. Color neutrality is achieved through combinations of three quarks or a quark-antiquark pair
Matter antimatter - an accentuation-attrition modelAlexander Decker
1) The document discusses a model of matter and antimatter interaction where antimatter dissipates matter and vice versa, reaching an equilibrium.
2) It suggests antimatter may be an integral part of electromagnetism and could explain galaxy rotation curves if antimatter constitutes dark matter.
3) However, most scientists believe dark matter is not antimatter since their annihilation would produce bursts of energy not observed.
Similar to Particle Physics Today ,Tomorrow and Beyond (20)
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptxRASHMI M G
Abnormal or anomalous secondary growth in plants. It defines secondary growth as an increase in plant girth due to vascular cambium or cork cambium. Anomalous secondary growth does not follow the normal pattern of a single vascular cambium producing xylem internally and phloem externally.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
2. CONTENT
1. Particle Physics
2. Fundamental Particles
3. Higgs Boson
4. Standard Model
5. Beyond the SM
I. Gravity
II. Dark Matter
III. Dark Energy
IV. Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry
V. Neutrino Mass
VI. Supersymmetry-SUSY
4. FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
• In particle physics, a fundamental
particle is a subatomic particle
with no any substructure.
• Fundamental particles include
1. Fermions
2
2. Gauge Bosons + Higgs Boson
Proton
5. Fermions (Matter Particles ):
• Fundamental particles that are the constituents of matter are assumed to be
the six leptons and the six quarks together with their antiparticles.
• These twelve particles are all spin 1/2 particles. 3
Mass
increases
6. Gauge Bosons (Force particles ):
• The modern physics explains the exchange of energy in interactions by the
use of force carriers, called bosons. They are
• All known gauge bosons have a spin of 1.
4
Strength
decreases
7. • A particle containing two or more
elementary particles is called a
composite particle or ‘Hadron’.
• Mesons - Made of one quark and
one antiquark
• Baryons - Made of three quarks
Hadrons:
Hadron
Mesons Baryons
5
8. HIGGS BOSON
• In July 2012 the ATLAS and CMS collaborations announced that they had discovered a
new particle with a mass near 125 GeV in studies of proton–proton collisions at the LHC.
That new particle was “Higgs Boson”.
• The Higgs particle is a massive scalar boson with zero spin, no electric charge, and no
color charge. It is also very unstable.
6
The ATLAS Detector at LHC,CERN The CMS Detector at LHC,CERN
9. • Just after the big bang, the Higgs field was zero, but as the universe cooled and the
temperature fell below a critical value, the field grew spontaneously so that any particle
interacting with it acquired a mass.
• The more a particle interacts with this field, the heavier it is.
• Particles like the photon that do not interact with it are left with no mass at all.
7
What is Higgs Boson exactly?
Tracks of Higgs boson in the CMS detector
• Higgs boson is the carrier particle of the Higgs field.
Tracks of Higgs boson in the ATLAS detector
10. STANDARD MODEL
• The Standard Model provides an organizing framework for the known fundamental
particles.
• It is describes the interaction of quarks and leptons via gauge bosons.
• There are twelve named fermions and five named bosons (which have been experimentally
seen) in the Standard Model
• Detecting the Higgs boson completed the Standard Model of particle physics.
• The Standard Model does not incorporate gravity.
8
12. 9
• As time passed , physicists realized that the standard model was incomplete.
• Many problems can not explain using Standard Model.
• For examples
1. Gravity
2. Dark matter
3. Dark energy
4. Matter-Antimatter asymmetry
5. Neutrino Mass
Etc.
13. GRAVITY
10
• Graviton is the particle considered as the force carrier of gravitational force.
• But ,Gravity is so weak in quantum world. Therefore the graviton cannot be
detected in experiments do in large accelerators in the world.
• The graviton has not discovered yet.
• But in ‘Superstring Theory’ and ‘Loop Quantum Gravity’, the Quantum
Gravity has explained.
• The current theory of gravity is Einstein’s general relativity(GR). Up to now,
all attempts to search for a synthesis of QM and GR have failed.
14. 11
DARK MATTER
• Dark Matter does not absorb, reflect or emit light. It can be only observe due to gravitational
effect.
• Many theories conclude that the dark matter would be too light to be produced at the
Particle Accelerators.
• If they were created , they would escape through the detectors unnoticed. However, they
would carry away energy and momentum.
• Their existence can be detected from the amount of energy and momentum “missing” after a
collision.
• In Supersymmetry(SUSY) and Extra dimensions, Dark matter concept arise frequently.
15. 12
DARK ENERGY
• Dark energy responsible for the accelerated expansion of the Universe.
• It is distributed evenly throughout the universe, not only in space but also in time .Its
effect is not diluted as the universe expands.
• Dark energy is thought to be very homogeneous and not very dense, It is not known to
interact through any of the fundamental forces other than gravity.
• Two proposed forms of dark energy are the cosmological constant and scalar fields.
• But there is no evidence of Dark Energy yet.
17. MATTER-ANTIMATTER ASYMMETRY
• Antimatter has the same mass and opposite electric
charge as their matter counterparts.
• After the Big bang, both Matter and Anti-Matter
were created in equal amount.
13
• But today everything around us is made from matter.
• Comparatively, antimatter is less in the universe.
• Antimatter is defined as the matter which is composed of antiparticles.
18. 14
• It is a challenge to figure out what happened to the antimatter, or why there is an
asymmetry between matter and antimatter.
• If Matter and antimatter particles come in contact, annihilate one another, leaving behind
pure energy.
• The laws of nature do not apply equally to matter and antimatter.
Matter- Antimatter Annihilation
19. 15
NEUTRINO MASS
• In the Standard Model, Neutrinos are expected to be massless.
• The observed flavor oscillations in solar and atmospheric neutrinos are only possible if
neutrinos are massive.
• Therefore according to neutrino oscillation, neutrinos do have mass.
• So understanding the value of neutrino masses is one of the key questions in fundamental
physics.
20. 16
SUPERSYMMETRY(SUSY)
• Supersymmetry (SUSY) is one of the most
attractive theories extending the Standard Model
of particle physics.
• It introduced a new particle called Super partner
for each particle in the Standard Model.
• These new particles would interact through the same forces as Standard Model particles,
but they would have different masses.
21. 17
• Also the interactions of its three forces could have the exact
same strength at very high energies.(Grand unified theory)
• SUSY particles have a spin that differs by half of a unit of its
Standard Model partner.
• By these properties of SUSY particles
1. Can make a light Higgs boson possible.
2. Link Fermions and Bosons.
• Lightest SUSY particles have characteristics of Dark matter .
• But SUSY particles still not discovered yet. If this theory is correct ,SUSY particles should
appear in collisions at particle accelerators.
22. REFERENCE
1. Home.cern. 2021. Physics | CERN. [online] Available at: https://home.cern/science/physics
2. Martin, B. and Shaw, G., 2010. Particle physics. Chichester: Wiley.
3. Gottfried, K. and Weisskopf, V., 1986. Concepts of particle physics. Oxford: Clarendon Pr. [u.a.].
4. 1998. Elementary-Particle Physics. Washington: National Academies Press.
5. Physics Today, 2012. CERN experiments detect particle consistent with Higgs boson.
6. Sundaresan, M., 2001. Handbook of particle physics. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press.
7. T. Morii, C. Lim and S. Mukherjee, The physics of the standard model and beyond. New Jersey: World
Scientific, 2004.
8. "Fermilab | Science", Fnal.gov, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.fnal.gov/pub/science/index.html.