1. Paradigms are fundamental models or frames of reference that shape how we organize observations and reasoning. They lie behind theories and influence ways of looking at things. Examples include Marxism and structural functionalism. 2. Theories are systematic sets of statements that aim to explain aspects of social life through identifying relationships between facts, concepts, and variables, and developing testable explanations for patterns. 3. Methodologies establish whether theories accurately represent reality in a way respected by most, and vary from highly quantitative to highly qualitative approaches and often combine methods.

1. Paradigms and Theories An Introduction

2. Approaches to Knowledge (1) Acquired belief system (usually based on social and cultural traditions; and these affect preferred EPISTEMOLOGIES, or WAYS OF KNOWING. Our culture highly validates scientific approaches to decision-making, but within our culture are sub-cultures that highly validate other ways of knowing, including religious) Area or focus of investigation (e.g. interpersonal, group, media communication)

3. Approaches to Knowledge (2) Paradigms are fundamental models or frames of reference that we use to organize our observations and reasoning. They may be implicit. Paradigms lie behind theories . They are ways of looking that may be more or less useful. Examples include Marxism or Structural-functionalism.

4. Approaches to Knowledge (3) Theories are systematic sets of interrelated statements that are intended to explain aspects of social life. Theories start with facts and concepts (abstract elements that represent classes of phenomena such as “juvenile delinquency”) and variables (concepts that are variable, e.g. gender varies between male, female). Theories identify relationships (patterns) between facts, concepts and variables, and develop explanations for these patterns, explanations that can be tested through observation or other methodologies. Theories yield hypotheses , precise predictions about how things did happen or how they will happen in the future.

5. Approaches to Knowledge Methodologies are ways of establishing whether theories do or do not represent reality in ways that command the respect of the majority of thinking people. They vary from highly quantitative (e.g. systematic sampling of large populations; experimental) to highly qualitative (e.g. ethnographic observation of a small, closed community), and often combine the two.l

6. Paradigms in Social and Communication Research (1) “ Objective” Paradigms Early positivism : society best understood through application of scientific, objective observation rather than in terms of moral categories Social-psychological : communication truths are discovered by careful, systematic observation, including the “who says what to whom with what effect” framework Cybernetic : communication is the link that connects separate parts of any system; focuses on efficiency of information processing, including feedback on past performance

7. Paradigms (2) 2. “ Interpretive” Paradigms Interpretive paradigm : subjective viewpoints, meaning and intentionality Symbolic interactionism : human behavior develops through interactions with others, our perceptions of others and our perceptions of how others see us. Ethnomethodology : people continuously create social structure, seeking to make meaning of the life. Phenomenology : understanding people, society requires us to focus on people’s perceptions and interpretations of their own subjective experience Semiotic : communication is a process of sharing meaning through signs, including words, but extending to indices, icons etc Post-positivism : both quantitative and qualitative methods are legitimate; use of multiple methods enhances explanations

8. Paradigms (3) Conservative Paradigms (tend to be “objective”) Social Darwinism : society evolving in a positive way over time Structural functionalism : society is an organism in which every part is either functional or dysfunctional for the whole Radical Paradigms (tend to be “interpretive”) Conflict paradigms : society best understood through social class relations Feminism : how gender differences relate to the rest of social organization

9. Paradigms (4) Semiotic: communication is a process of sharing meaning through signs, including words, but extending to indices, icons etc Socio-cultural: communication is the creation and enactment of social reality; as people talk, they produce and reproduce culture Critical: starts from the premise that history is best characterized by processes of oppression, through language, media and science.

10. Focus in Communication Research Interpersonal Language and social interaction Group communication Organizational communication Intercultural organization Media and cultural studies

11. Focus (2) Performance studies: looks at how performers interpret culturally authored scripts and collaborate with audiences. This incorporates the study of rhetoric or public address Applied communication: diagnosis and solution of practical problems that hinder people’s ability to achieve communication goals. Incorporates ethical considerations: issues of truth, accuracy, responsibility. Health communication: sub-set of applied; raises issues concerning hierarchization between medical professionals and patients