Motivation refers to driving and pulling forces that result in persistent goal-directed behavior. Motives are inferred from behavior and help explain and predict behavior. There are various theories of motivation including instinct, drive reduction, arousal, incentive, cognitive, and humanistic theories. Physiological needs like hunger and thirst are deeply rooted biological motives driven by bodily needs and regulated by mechanisms like the hypothalamus. Psychological needs for achievement, affiliation, and power also motivate behavior and are influenced by both innate and learned factors.

1. Motivation and Emotion

2. Meaning of Motivation
• Motivation is a term referring to the driving
and pulling forces which result in persistent
behavior directed towards certain goals.

3. Motives?
• Are inferences from behavior (the things that
are said and done). e.g. a student work hard at
almost every task from this we might infer a
motive to achieve or master challenges.
• If these inferences are true, motives are
powerful tools for explaining behavior. e.g.
everyday explanation of behavior are given in
terms of motives. What are your motives to
come to college?

4. • To learn , to make friends, its better to come to
college than to go for work, abiding by the social
pressure, you need to have a degree..
• Motives also helps to make predictions about
behavior. Because if a person will have high need
to achieve will work hard in school, in business, in
play etc.
• Motives do not tell us exactly what will happen
but gives us good idea about the range of things a
person will do.

5. Theories of Motivation
• Instinct
• Drive Reduction
• Arousal
• Incentive
• Cognitive
• Humanistic

6. • Drive reduction – these might be described as ‘push theory
of motivation’ behavior is “pushed” towards goals by
driving states within the person or animal. Theory says that
when an internal driving state is aroused, the individual is
pushed to engage in behavior which will lead to a goal that
reduces the intensity of driving state. Reaching the
appropriate goal reduces the drive state leading to a
pleasurable and satisfying feeling.
• Thus the motivation consist of
• Driving state
• The goal directed behavior initiated by the driving state
• The attainment of an appropriated goal
• The reduction of the driving state and subjective
satisfaction and relief when goal is reached
• This sequence of events just described is sometimes called
motivational cycle

7. MOTIVATIONAL CYCLE
Driving state (set in
motion by bodily needs
or environmental
stimuli)
Goal – directed
Goal
behavior

8. INCENTIVE
• The goal objects which motivate behavior are
known as incentives.
• Incentive theories are “pull theories” of
motivation they have certain characteristic
because of which the goal objects pull behavior
towards them.
• Individual attain pleasure from positive incentive
and avoid what are known as negative incentives.
• E. g. wages, salaries, bonuses, vacations etc.

9. Arousal Theories
• This theory states that there is a certain
optimal, or best, level of arousal that is
pleasurable.
• These theories may also be called as “just
right theories”.
• According to this theory the individual is
motivated to behave in such a way as to
maintain the optimal level of arousal.

10. Humanistic
• According to this theory the satisfaction of
human need follows a certain path starting
from the bottom or basic needs that is
Physiological needs it goes up till self
actualization.

11. Maslow need hierarchy
Self
actualization
Esteem
needs
Belongingness and
love need
Safety needs
Physiological need

12. • Physiological needs: such as hunger, thirst
and sex.
• Safety needs: such as needs for security,
stability and order.
• Belongingness and love need: such as need for
affection, affiliation and identification
• Esteem needs: such as need for prestige,
success and self respect
• Self actualization need: if all your needs are
met and you achieve the ultimate goal then
you become self actualized.

13. Instinct
• Instinct: Born to be motivated
• Instincts are inborn pattern of behavior that
are biologically determined rather than
learned.
• This approach this approach to motivation
people and animal are born with
preprogrammed sets of behaviors essential to
their survival.

14. • These instincts provide the energy that
channels behavior in appropriate directions.
• William McDougall (1908) suggests that there
are 18 instincts.
• Bernard (1924) says that there are total of
5,759 distinct instincts.

15. Criticism
• Much of the human behavior is learned which
cannot be explained by instinctual behavior.
• Thus newer explanation have replaced
conceptions of motivation based on instincts.
• However, instinct approaches still play a role
in certain theories, particularly those based on
the evolutionary approach.

16. Cognitive
• Cognitive: The thoughts behind motivation
• Cognitive approach suggest that motivation is
a product of people’s
thoughts, expectation, and goal-their
cognition.
• E.g. people are motivated to study for a test is
based on their expectation of how well
studying will pay off in terms of a good grade
(wigfied & Eccles, 2000)

17. Draws a key distinction between
• Intrinsic motivation: causes us to participate in
an activity for our own enjoyment rather than
for any concrete tangible reward that it will
bring us.
• If motivation is intrinsic we work harder, and
produce work of higher quality.
• Extrinsic motivation: causes us to do
something for money, a grade, or some other
concrete, tangible reward.

18. • In a study on effect of rewards on motivation
researchers promised a group of nursery
students a reward for drawing with magic
markers (an activity for which they had
previously shown high motivation). Result
shows that the reward reduced their
enthusiasm for the task (Lepper &
Greene, 1978).

19. • Instinct –people and animal are born with
preprogrammed sets of behavior essential to
their survival.
• Drive reduction- when some basic biological
requirement is lacking a drive is produced.
• Arousal – people seek an optimal level of
stimulation. If the level of stimulation is too
high, they act to reduce it; if it is too low, they
act to increase it.

20. • Incentive- external stimuli direct and energize
behavior.
• Cognitive – Thoughts, expectations and
understanding of the world direct motivation.
• Hierarchy of needs – needs form a hierarchy;
before higher – order needs are met, lower –
order needs must be fulfilled.

21. Types of motivation
• Physiological Motivation: Hunger, thirst, sex
and maternal drive
• Psychological: Achievement, Affiliation, Power
and Parenting.

22. Physiological Needs
• These needs are deeply rooted in the
physiological state of the body. There are
many such motives including hunger, thirst, a
desire for sex, temperature regulation, sleep,
pain avoidance, and need for oxygen.

23. Hunger
• Why people are subject to eating disorders:
• To avoid weight gain at all costs?
• In overeating leading to obesity?
• To answer this question we will examine the
most important human need HUNGER

24. Motivation behind hunger
• Biological Factors: Human and nonhuman both
the species are unlikely to become obese.
• Internal mechanism regulate not only the
quantity of food intake but also the kind of food
they desire.
• E.g. rats that has been deprived of particular food
seek out alternatives that contain the specific
nutrients their diet is lacking, and animals given
choice of a whole variety of foods choose a well-
balanced diet (Inglefinger, 1944; Rozin, 1977;
Bouchard & Bray, 1996; Woods et al., 2000)

25. • Empty stomach causing hunger pangs. (even
people whose stomachs have been removed
still experience the sensation of hunger).
• Change in chemical composition of the blood
(in particular glucose level) regulate feeling of
hunger.

26. • Glucose level are monitored by the brain’s
hypothalamus. Thus it is said that hypothalamus
is the organ primarily responsible for monitoring
food intake. Also known as “feeding center”
• Damage to hypothalamus affect eating behavior
depending on the site of the injury.
• E.g. lateral hypothalamus injury to lead to
starvation till death in rates unless fed forcefully .
• Ventromedial hypothalamus injury leads to
overeating rats will increase there weights upto
400%.

27. • Similar phenomenon is seen in humans who
have tumors of the hypothalamus (Rolls, 1994;
Woods et al., 1998).
• Although hypothalamus clearly plays role in
regulation of food intake, exactly how it
operates is still unclear.

28. • Weight set point – is the particular level of
weight that the body strive to maintain. Acting
as a kind of internal weight thermostat.
• Hypothalamus looks into greater or less food
intake (Nisbett, 1972; Capaldi, 1996; Woods
et.al., 2000).
• .

29. • According to this hypothesis injury to
hypothalamus affect the weight set point by
which the food is regulated, drastically leading
to raises or lower the weight set point and the
organism then strive to meet internal goal
increasing or decreasing food consumption.

30. • This WSPoint is partly regulated by genetic
factors.
• Metabolism – rate at which food is converted
to energy and expended by body- people with
high metabolic rate are able to eat as much as
they want without gaining weight, whereas
people with low metabolic rate eat less yet
gain weight readily (woods et al., 1998).

31. Social factors in eating
• Internal biological factors do not provide full
explanation for our eating behavior.
• External social factors
• Societal rules and conventions
• Appropriate eating behavior
• E.g. we eat breakfast, lunch and dinner at the
approx the same time every day. Because we are
accustomed to eat at the same time we feel
hungry independently of our internal cues.

32. • We tend to put the same amount of food on
our plates every day in spite of the fact that
our energy requirement varies from day to
day.
• We also tend to prefer particular foods over
others.
• Thus cultural influences and our habits play an
important role in determining when, what and
how much we will eat.

33. • Other social factors relate to eating behavior:
• Difficult day or stressed we usually eat a
chocolate or ice cream why????
• We have learned through operant or classical
learning to associate food with a pleasurable
feeling or eating helps us escape from
unpleasant thoughts.
• We eat when experience distress.

34. Eating Disorders
• Anorexia nervosa: people refuse to eat, while denying
that their appearance has become like a skeleton and
behavior unusual.
• 10% of anorexic starve themselves to death.
• It affects mainly females between age 12-40 but men
can also develop it.
• The disorder starts from dieting and gets out of control
• Their life revolve around food
• They themselves eat little but cook for others, go
shopping for food frequently and collect cook books.

35. • Bulimia: people involve in binge on large
quantity of food.
• They feel guilt and depression after eating as a
result often induce vomiting or take laxatives
to rid themselves of food- behavior known as
purging.
• Constant bingeing and purging cycles and use
of drugs to induce vomiting leads to heart
failure.

36. • 1-4% of high school and college women suffer
from either of two eating disorders.

37. Causes
• Chemical imbalance in hypothalamus and
pituitary gland brought by genetic factors.
• Societal preferences for slenderness
• Consequences of over demanding parents and
other family problems
• Complete explanation is still elusive
• Probably stem from both biological and social
factors .

38. Treatment
• Strategies including dietary changes and
therapy .

39. Thirst Motivation
• What drives us to drink??
• Stimulus factors play a very large role in
initiating drinking.
• We drink to wet a dry mouth or to taste a
good beverage.
• Pulled by these stimuli and incentives, we
tend to drink more than the body needs, but it
is easy for kidney to get rid of the excess fluid.

40. • Since maintaining water level is essential for life
the body has a set of complicated internal
homeostatic processes to regulate its fluid level
and drinking behavior.
• Body’s water level is maintained by physiological
events in which several hormones play a vital
role.
• One of these is the antidiuretic hormones (ADH),
which regulates the loss of water through the
kidneys.

41. • But the physiological mechanisms involved in
maintaining the body’s water level are not
directly involved in thirst motivation.

42. • Thirst motivation are mainly triggered by two
conditions of the body:
• Loss of water from cells
• Reduction of blood volume

43. • When water is lost from bodily fluids, water
leaves the interior of the cell thus dehydrating
them.
• The anterior or front of the hypothalamus are
nerve cells called Osmoreceptors – generate
nerve impulse when they are dehydrated.
• These nerve impulses act as a signal for thirst.
• Thirst triggered by loss of water from the
osmoreceptors is called cellular-dehydration
thirst.

44. • Loss of water also lead to decrease in the
volume of the blood known as hypovolemia.
• When blood volume goes down so does blood
pressure this drop in blood pressure stimulate
kidney to release an enzyme called renin.
• Through several steps process renin is
involved in the formation of a substance
known as angiotensin II that circulate in blood
and may trigger drinking.

45. • The idea that the cellular dehydration and
hypovolemia contribute to thirst and drinking is
called double-depletion hypothesis.
• E.g. both mechanism are at work after a tennis
game the body lost water the osmoreceptors
have been dehydrated and blood volume gone
down. Thirst is triggered and you drink to
rehydrate your cell and bring your blood volume
back to its normal position.

46. • Why does drinking stop?
• Some kind of monitoring mechanism in the
mouth, stomach, or intestine which indicate
that enough water has been consumed to
meet the body’s needs.
• In an experiment water deprived rats, dogs,
monkeys and people stop drinking long before
the water balance of their body has been
restored.

47. Psychological Needs
• Characteristic:
• General:
• N Achievement-concern to do better to
improve performance
• N Affiliation-concern for establishing,
maintaining, repairing friendly relations
• N Power-concern with having impact,
reputation and influence

48. • Arousing situation:
• N Achievement-A moderately challenging task
• N Affiliation-opportunity to be with friends
• N Power-Hierarchical or influence situation

49. • Related activities:
• N Achievement-chooses and performs better
at challenging tasks, prefers personal
responsibility, seek and utilizes feedback on
performance quality innovates to improve
• N Affiliation-Makes more local phone calls,
visits, seeks approval, dislike disagreeing with
strangers, better grades from a warm teacher

50. • N Power-Accumulate “prestige supplies” often
tries to convince others, more often an officer
in voluntary organizations, plays more
competitive sports, drinks more heavily

51. Need for achievement
• Need for achievement (n ach): was the first
psychological motives to be studied in detail.
• Source of Achievement Motivation
• Why are some people high in the need for
achievement??

52. • Need for achievement motivation are largely
learned
• The expectation parents have for their
children are also important in the
development of achievement motivation

53. Achievement motivation and Behavior
• High n ach people prefer to work on
moderately challenging tasks which promises
success.
• They do not like to work on very easy
task, where there is no challenge and so no
satisfaction of their achievement needs
• Nor they like very difficult tasks, where
likelihood of their success is low.

54. • Thus people high in n-ach are likely to be
realistic in the tasks, jobs, and vocation they
select; i.e., they are likely to make a good
between their abilities and what will be
demanded of them.

55. • High n-ach people like tasks in which their
performance can be compared with that of
others; they like feedback on “how they are
doing”
• High n-ach people tend to be persistent in
working on tasks they perceive as career-
related or as reflecting those personal
characteristic (such as intelligence) which are
involved in “getting ahead”

56. • When high n-ach people are successful they
tend to raise their level of aspiration in a
realistic way so that they will move on to
slightly more challenging and difficult tasks.
• High n-ach people like to work in situation in
which they have some control over the
outcome; they are not gamblers

57. Need for affiliation: Striving for
friendship
• Need for affiliation: an interest in establishing
and maintaining relationships with other
people.
• People with higher affiliation need are
particularly sensitive to relationships with
others
• They desire to be with their friends more of
the time and alone less often.

58. Power Motivation
• Social power as “the ability or capacity of a
person to produce intended effect on the
behavior or emotion of the another person.”
• The goal of n power is to influence, control,
cajole, persuade, lead, charm others and to
enhance one’s own reputation in the eyes of
other people.
• They derive satisfaction from achieving their
goals

59. • Power motivation varies in strength form
person to person and can be measured from
stories told in the picture-projection
technique.

60. Power motivation and behavior
• Power motivation can be expressed in many
ways:
• By impulsive and aggressive action, especially
by men in lower socioeconomic bracket
• By participation in competitive sports, such as
hockey, football, basketball, tennis and
basketball especially by men in lower
socioeconomic brackets and by college men.

61. • By joining organizations and holding office in
these organizations.
• By obtaining and collecting possessions, such as
fancy cars, guns, numerous credit cards etc.
• By associating with people who are not
particularly popular with others
• By choosing occupations such as teaching,
diplomacy, business, -high n power in which
people think they have an impact on others
• By building and disciplining their bodies.

62. EMOTION
• What emotion is?
• Not an easy question to answer some 92
definitions were listed in a review by
(Kleinginna & Kleinginna).
• EMOTIONS: are feelings that generally have
both physiological (change in heart rate) and
cognitive elements (understanding and
evaluating the meaning of what is happening)
and that influence behavior.

63. Functions of Emotions
• Preparing us for action
• Shaping our future behavior
• Helping us to interact more effectively with
others

64. Physiology of Emotion
• When we are excited, terrified, or engaged we
perceive some of the things happening in our
bodies, but certainly not aware of all that is
happening.
• Direct observation using recording instruments
helps psycho - physiologists to measure the heart
rate, blood pressure, blood flow, activity of the
stomach and gastrointestinal system, level of
substances like hormones, breathing rate and
depth, and many other bodily conditions during
emotion.

65. The Autonomic Nervous System
• Many of bodily changes that occur in emotions
are produced by the activity of a part of the
nervous system called autonomic system a part of
peripheral nervous system.
• But its activity to a large extent is under the
control of central nervous system.
• Autonomic nervous system consist of nerve
leading from brain and spinal cord out to the
heart, to certain glands, to blood vessels both
interior or exterior of the body.

66. Autonomic
Nervous System
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
System System

67. The sympathetic System
• Is active during aroused states and prepare
the body for extensive action by increasing the
heart rate, raising the blood pressure,
increasing blood sugar (glucose) level, and
raising certain hormones.
• This part of autonomic nervous system is
active in many strong emotions esp. fear and
anger.

68. • Hormones discharged by the sympathetic
system are epinephrine (adrenalin) or
norepinephrine (noradrenalin)
Hormones by
Sympathetic System
Epinephrine Norepinephrine
(adrenalin) (noradrenalin)

69. Nerve impulses in
sympathetic system
Reach inner part of adrenal
gland
Located on the top of kidney
Triggers the secretion of these
hormones (epinephrine and
norepinephrine)
Then they go into blood and
circulated around the body

70. • Epinephrine affects many structures of the
body:
• In liver it helps mobilize glucose (blood sugar)
into the blood and thus make energy available
to brain and muscles.
• Also causes heart to beat harder (surgeons
use epinepherine to stimulate heart action
when the heart has weakened or stopped)

71. • In skeletal muscles it helps mobilize sugar
resources so that the muscle can use them
more rapidly.
• Whereas norepinephrine major effect is to
constrict peripheral blood vessels and so raise
blood pressure.

72. Parasympathetic system
• Tends to be active when we are calm and relaxed.
• Parasympathetic helps us to conserve and build
up body store of energy.
• It decreases the heart rate
• Reduces the blood pressure
• Divert blood to digestive tract
• Thus effects of parasympathetic are opposite of
sympathetic system.

73. • In aroused state sympathetic activity
predominates in calmer state parasympathetic
activity dominates.
• In many activities both systems can be active.
• E.g. in anger for instance the heart rate
increases (a sympathetic effect) as does
stomach activity (a parasympathetic effect)

74. • In aroused emotional states – sympathetic
activity predominates
• In calmer states – parasympathetic activity is
dominant
• In many emotional states both the systems
can be active
• In anger the heart rate increases (a
sympathetic effects) as does stomach activity (
a parasympathetic effect)

75. Somatic Nervous System
• Part of peripheral nervous system activates
the striped muscles of the body –
arms, legs, and breathing muscles. During
emotinal responses.

76. Brain and Emotion
• Hypothalamus and Limbic system regulate and
coordinate the emotional responses

77. Theories of Emotion
• General principles to guide the thinking of
emotion are:
• James Lange Theory: felt emotion is the
perception of bodily changes
• Cannon-Bard Theory: felt emotion and bodily
responses are independent events
• Schachter-Singer Theory (Cognitive): the
interpretation of bodily arousal

78. A stranger follows you
James Lange Schachter Singer Theory
Theory Cannon Bard (Cognitive)
Theory

79. James Lange Theory
Activation of visceral
bodily changes
Brain interprets
visceral changes as
emotional
experiences

80. Cannon Bard Theory
Activation of
thalamus
Activation of bodily Messages to cortex
changes in response regarding emotional
to brain experience

81. Schachter Singer Theory
Activation of general Observation of
physiological arousal environmental cues
Determination of label to
place on arousal identifying
emotional experiences

82. Nonverbal Communication
• We now know that nonverbal behavior
communicate messages simultaneously across
several channels, paths along which
communication flows.
• Facial expression
• Eye contact
• Body movement
• Tone of voice
• Positioning of eyebrows

83. Facial Expression

84. • Facial expression are primary means of
communicating emotional states.

85. • Consider the picture above and will come to
know about six basic emotions
• Happiness
• Anger
• Sadness
• Surprise
• Disgust and fear

86. • These basic emotions are expressed
universally.
• Ekman 1972: found that a remote tribe from
Guinea were able to identify the basic
emotions like fear, happiness etc.

87. Facial Affect Program
• Why there is similarity in the expression of
basic emotion across cultures?
• FAP assumed to be universally present at birth
• When set in motion activates a set of nerve
impulses that make the face display an
appropriate expression.

88. • Each primary emotions produces a unique set
of muscular movements
• Eg. Emotion of happiness is universally
displayed by movement of the zygomatic
major – a muscle that raises the corner of the
mouth forming a smile

89. Display Rules
• Are the guidelines that governs
appropriateness of showing emotion
nonverbally.
• These are learned during childhood
• Eg. If you get an unwanted gift you know that
you have to paste a smile on your face at least
in the presence of the gift giver.

90. Facial Feedback Hypothesis
• If you want to feel happy try smiling