Psychology for Nurses

1. THINKING
PRESENTED BY-
Mr.Vivekananda D S

2. • Thinking is one of the most important aspect of cognitive
behaviour/mental activity.
• Think before you act or think before you feel.
• Recollection, imagination, perception− are also thinking process.
• It has a definite end or purpose i.e., solving problems etc
• It is carried out through mental manipulation of activities, objective &
experience.
Definitins-
Thinking is an implicit problem-solving behaviour. (Mohsin)
Thinking is a problem-sovling process in which we use ideas or symbols
in place of overt activity. (Gilmer)

3. NATURE OF THINKING
• It is cognitive activity.
• It is always directed to achieve some end or purpose.
• It is described as problem-solving behaviour.
• In thinking, there is mental exploration instead of motor exploration.

4. TYPES OF THINKING
1. Perceptual or Concrete thinking-
• It is the simplest form of thinking. The basis of this type of thinking is
perception.
• It is thinking of a lower order. Such type of thinking is present in animals
and children.
2. Conceptual or Abstract Thinking
• Like perceptual thinking it does not require the perception of actual objects
or events.
• It is an abstract thinking where one makes use of concepts, the generalized
ideas and language.
• It is regarded as a superior type of thinking to perceptual thinking as it
economizes efforts in understanding and problem solving.

5. 3.Reflective Thinking or Logical Thinking
• Reflective thinking aims at solving complex problems rather than simple
problems.
• It requires reorganization of all the relevant experiences and finding new
ways of reacting to a situation.
• No trail and error type effort.
• Insightful cognitive approach.
• All facts are arranged in a logical order.
4. Creative Thinking
• It is chiefly aimed at creating something new.
• It is in search of new relationships and associations to describe and interpret
the nature of things, events and situations.

6. • It is not bound by any pre-established rules.
• The individual himself usually formulates the problem and is free to
collect evidence and invent tools for its solution.
• The thinking of the scientists or inventors is an example of creative
thinking.
5. Critical Thinking
• It helps a person step aside from his own personal beliefs, prejudices
and opinions to sort out the facts and discover the truth.
• It represents challenging thought process taking one to new avenues of
knowledge and understanding.
6.Convergent thinking-
• It is considered single point or closed thinking.
7.Divergent thinking-

7. Two Main Types of Thinking
1.Controlled thinking 2.Free thinking
Controlled Thinking
In controlled thinking the process of thinking is controlled and regulated.
Thoughts keep in close touch with reality and are directed towards the
achievement of a specific goal. Reasoning, problem solving, and creative
thinking are examples of controlled thinking.
Reasoning: It is one of the methods of finding solution to a problem.
• Reasoning is stepwise thinking with a purpose or goal in mind.
• Reasoning is combining past experience in order to solve a problem,
which cannot be solved by mere reproduction of earlier solutions.

8. • Reasoning may be classified into two broad types:
I. Inductive reasoning II. Deductive reasoning
I. Inductive reasoning: In this we proceed from specific facts or
observations to general principles.
• For example, iron expands when heated; water also expands when
heated; air also expands when heated. Therefore, all types of matter –
solid, liquid and gas – expand when heated.
II. Deductive reasoning: this is just the opposite of inductive reasoning.
In deductive reasoning we proceed from general principles to specific
situations.
• For example, matter expands when heated; iron is a form of matter and
thus expands when heated.

9. Problem solving- is a process of overcoming difficulties that appear to
interfere with the attainment of a goal. It is a procedure of making
adjustments in spite of interferences.
Scientific method of problem solving:
• Problem awareness: individual concerns his awareness of the difficulty
or problem that needs a solution.
• Problem understanding: all the difficulties and obstacles in the path of
the solution must be properly named and identified and what is to be got
through the problem-solving efforts.
• Collection of relevant information: In this step, the individual is
required to collect all the relevant information about the problem
through all possible sources.

10. • Formulation of hypothesis or hunch for possible solutions: In the
light of the collected relevant information and nature of his problem,
one may then engage in some serious cognitive activities to think of the
various possibilities for the solution of one’s problem. As a result, he
may start with a few possible solutions for his problem.
• Selection of a proper solution: In this step, all the possible solutions,
thought of in the previous step, are closely analyzed and evaluated.
• Verification of the concluded solution or hypothesis: The solution
arrived at or conclusion drawn must be further verified by applying it
in the solution of various similar problems.

11. • Creative thinking- It is defined as personal, imaginative thinking
which produces a new, novel and useful solution.
Stages of Creative Thinking
• Stage I–preparation: formulates the problem and collects the facts and
materials necessary for the new solution.
• Stage II–incubation: the ideas that were interfering with the solution of
the problem begin to fade. The unconscious thought processes involved
in creative thinking are also at work during this stage. All this leads to
the third stage.
• Stage III–insight (illumination): the creative thinker experiences sudden
appearance of the solution to his problems, which is termed as ‘insight’.
• Stage IV–verification (evaluation): If problem solving not satisfactory,
the thinker is back at the beginning of the creative process. On the other
hand, if the solution is satisfactory, stage V is reached.

12. Stage V–revision: During this stage, any modifications needed are made.
The creative thinker never considers his solution as perfect or final. It is
open for modification or revision at anytime as essential.
Free Thinking
In free thinking, thought processes are allowed much greater freedom of
action. Neither there are any restrictions of reality in terms of time and
space nor any desire on the part of the thinker to achieve a certain goal
which is realistic.
Examples of free thinking are imagination, daydreaming and dreaming.

13. • Imagination: It is a mental activity, in which we make use of images
and also go beyond them. When we are imagining an object or
situation we do not have any sense perception of the object or
situation at that time. We only have the mental image of the object or
the situation and create something of our own. Thus, the object or
situation or the past experience is reorganized and sometimes looks new
and unusual.
• Daydreaming: It is a kind of idle imagination. In day dreamers,
impossible things become possible like our wishes, which cannot be
fulfilled in real life are fulfilled. Daydreaming provides a person with
an opportunity to develop his power of imagination and with much
satisfaction and pleasure and provides an escape from the routine daily
life. If we spend a major portion of our time in daydream, we may not
be able to cope with the actual problems in real life.

14. • Dreaming: Dreams are mental activities of lighter sleep. It is not
subject to the personal and environmental controls that operate, when
we are awake. They emerge in response to some stimulus either internal
or external. In some of our dreams we solve the problems, which were
perplexing us during our waking hours. Some dreams may be simple
reminiscences or reproductions of what happened during the day.

15. Levels of Thinking
1. Knowledge Level-
In this one is found to operate at very concrete level of knowledge i.e.
knowing about something, being able to recall specific facts or figures.
2. Comprehension Level-
In this level understanding of facts and ideas by organizing, comparing,
translating, interpreting, giving descriptions and stating events in his own
words.
3. Application Level-
Solving problems by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and
rules in a different way.

16. 4. Analysis Level-
At this level one is found to demonstrate his ability to analyse i.e.
Examining and breaking information into parts by identifying motives or
causes; making inferences and finding evidence to support
generalizations.
5. Synthesis Level-
At this level one is found to demonstrate his ability to synthesize i.e
Putting elements together to form new whole; formulating theories and
ways to test them.
6. Evaluation Level-
At this level one is found to demonstrate his ability to evaluate i.e
Making value judgement about idea, method or solution.

17. Elements in Development of Thought (Tools of Thinking)
• Images
• Concepts- are important language symbols used in thinking.
• Symbols and Signs (Traffic lights, railway signals, school bells, badges,
songs, flags and slogans)
• Languages- most efficient and developed vehicle used for carrying out
the process of thinking.
• Brain Functions

18. Stage and age range Description
Sensorimotor
(Birth to 2 years)
An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual
action at birth to the beginning of symbolic
thought. The infant constructs an understanding of
the world by co-ordinating sensory experiences
with physical actions
Preoperational
(2 to 7 years)
The child begins to represent the world with words
and images; these words and images reflect
increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the
connection of sensory information and physical
action
Concrete operational
(7 to 11 years)
The child can now reason logically about concrete
events and classify objects into different sets
Formal operational The adolescent reasons in more abstract and

19. Errors in Thinking
1.Partialism
This error occurs when the thinker observes the problem through one
perspective only, i.e. the thinker examines only one or two factors of the
problem and arrives at a premature solution.
2.Adversary Thinking
This is like “You are wrong. So, I should be right.” type of reasoning.
Politicians are the masters in this type of thinking and they use it to their
advantage.
3.Time Scale Error
This is a kind of partialism in thinking, in which the thinker sees the problem
from a limited time frame. It is similar to short-sightedness.

20. 4.Initial Judgment
Here, the thinker becomes very subjective. Instead of considering the issue or
problem objectively, the thinker approaches it with prejudice or bias.
5.Arrogance and Conceit
This error is sometimes called the “Village Venus Effect”, because like the
villagers, who think that the most beautiful girl in the world is the most
beautiful girl in their village, the thinker believes that there is no better
solution other than that he has already found. This blocks creativity.

21. Cognitive Thinking Errors
• Black and white thinking: Thinking of things in absolute terms, like ‘always’,
‘every’ or ‘never’.
• Overgeneralization: Taking isolated cases and using them to make wide
generalizations. For example, you see a single negative event as a never-ending
pattern of defeat
• Mental filter: Focusing exclusively on certain, usually negative or upsetting,
aspects of something, while ignoring the rest. For example, you selectively hear
the one tiny negative thing surrounded by all the huge positive stuff.
• Jumping to conclusions: Assuming something negative; where there is actually
no evidence to support it.
• Magnification and minimization: Exaggerating negatives and understating
positives.
• Emotional reasoning: Making decisions and arguments based on how you feel
rather than objective reality.

22. ALTERATIONS IN THINKING
Irrational thinking
Illogical thinking
Improper thinking
Non-directed or aimless thinking

23. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSES
• Language and communication plays important role in development of
thinking.
• The job of a nurse requires a lot of thinking.
• The nurse uses thinking to understand rationale behind each procedure.
• In order to think correctly, a nurse should have adequate knowledge and
experience. She should be able to distinguish between facts and opinion.
• The knowledge of stages of development of thinking may help a nurse to
draw a clear picture about the level of thinking.
• Understanding type of thinking may help nurse to learn and acquire more
appropriate method for her own welfare and progress.
• Knowledge regarding alterations & errors in thinking help the nurse to guard
& guide patients.