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Motivation and Emotion

Motivation and emotion can be understood through various psychological theories. The evolutionary perspective notes that many behaviors are pre-wired instincts. Drive-reduction theory proposes that organisms engage in behaviors to reduce drives and tensions like hunger. Maslow's hierarchy of needs describes physiological and psychological needs that motivate behavior. Hormones, biological drives, and psychological factors all influence behaviors like eating, sexual motivation, and sexual orientation. Motivation is a complex topic in psychology.

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Motivation and Emotion SOSC 2 General Psychology
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MOTIVATION
• The psychology of motivation is concerned with the why of behavior. • Why do we eat? • Why do some of us strive to get ahead? • Why do some of us ride motorcycles at breakneck speeds? • Why are some people aggressive?
motivation • The state in which an organism experiences an inducement or incentive to do something. • Refers to the forces that act on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior.
motive • A hypothetical state within an organism that propels the organism toward a goal. • “Hypothetical state” because motives are not seen and measured directly. • Inferred from behavior. • Motives may take the form of needs, drives, and incentives, which are also inferred from behavior.
need • A state of deprivation • Physiological and psychological • Needs gives rise to drives.
Needs Physiological needs • Oxygen • Food • Drink • Pain avoidance • Proper temperature • Elimination of waste products Psychological needs • Achievement • Power • Self-esteem • Social approval • Belonging
drive • A condition of arousal in an organism that is associated with a need. • Physiological drives are the counterparts of physiological needs. • Drives arouse us to action and tend to be stronger when we have been deprived longer. – Ex. We are hungrier when we haven’t eaten for 10 hours than 1 hour.
incentive • An object, person, or situation perceived as capable of satisfying a need or as desirable for its own sake. – Ex. Money, food, a sexually attractive person, social approval, attention
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
The Evolutionary Perspective • Notes that many animals are neurally “prewired--”that is, born with preprogrammed tendencies—to respond to certain situations in certain ways. • Spiders spin webs instinctively. Bees “dance” instinctively to communicate the location of food to other bees. • Species-specific behaviors are also called instincts and are inborn.
instinct • An inherited disposition to activate specific behavior patterns that are designed to reach certain goals. • William James (1890) numbered love, sympathy, and modesty as social instincts. • William McDougall (1908) compiled 12 “basic” instincts, including hunger, sex, and self-assertion.
Drive-Reductionism and Homeostasis • Drive-reduction theory is the view that organisms learn to engage in behaviors that have the effect of reducing drives. • According to Clark Hull (1930), primary drives such as hunger, thirst, and pain trigger arousal (tension) activate behavior. • We learn to engage in behaviors that reduce the tension. • We also acquire drives—called acquired drives—through experience. – Ex. We may acquire a drive for money because money enables us to obtain food, drink, and homes, which protect us from crime and extremes of temperature.
Drive-Reductionism and Homeostasis • Sensations of hunger motivate us to act in ways that will restore the bodily balance. • This tendency to maintain a steady state is called homeostasis.
The Search for Stimulation • In the case of stimulus motives, organisms seek to increase stimulation. • A classic study conducted at McGill University in Montreal during the 1950s suggests the importance of sensory stimulation and activity.
The Search for Stimulation • Stimulus motives provide an evolutionary advantage. • Animals that are active and motivated to explore and manipulate their environment are more likely to survive. – Ex. If you know where the nearest tall tree is, you’re more likely to escape a leopard and transmit your genes to future generations.
Humanistic Theory • Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) suggest that human behavior is not just mechanical and aimed toward survival and the reduction of tension. • He believed that people are also motivated by a conscious desire for personal growth. • We are separated from other animals by our capacity for self-actualization, or self-initiated striving to become what we believe we are capable of being.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self- actualization A state of self- fulfillment Esteem The need to develop a sense of self-worth Love and Belongingness The need to obtain and give affection (intimate relationships, social groups, friends) Safety Needs The need for a safe and secure environment (housing, clothing, crime) Physiological Needs The primary drives: needs for water, food, sleep, elimination, warmth, pain avoidance, and sex
• 5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc. • 6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. • 8. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self actualization.
Cognitive Perspectives on Motivation • According to cognitive-dissonance theory, people are generally motivated to hold consistent beliefs and to justify their behavior. • That is why we are generally more likely to appreciate what we must work to obtain.
HUNGER The Motivation to Eat
• We need food to survive, but for many of us, food means more than survival. • Food is a symbol of family togetherness and caring. • We associate food with the nurturance of the parent- child relationship and with visits home on holidays. • Friends and relatives offer us food when we enter their homes, and saying no may be viewed as a personal rejection.
• What triggers your hunger driver? Are you only interested in eating when your blood sugar level falls, or do the sights and aromas of foods stimulate you to eat?
Biological Influences on Hunger • Satiety – the state of being satisfied; fullness
Biological Influences on Hunger • Chewing and swallowing provide feelings of satiety. • An empty stomach leads to stomach contractions, which we call hunger pangs. • When we are deprived of food, the level of sugar in the blood drops. The drop in blood sugar is communicated to the hypothalamus, which stokes the hunger drive.
Biological Influences on Hunger • Ventromedial nucleus (VMN) – a central area on the underside of the hypothalamus that appears to function as a stop-eating center. – Hyperphagic – characterized by excessive eating • Lateral Hypothalamus – an area at the side of the hypothalamus that appears to function as a start-eating center. – Aphagic – characterized by undereating
• How many times have you been made hungry by the sight or aroma of food? • How many times have you eaten not because you were hungry but because you were at a relative’s home or hanging around a cafeteria or coffee shop? • Or because you felt anxious or depressed? • Or simply because you were bored?
Psychological Influences on Hunger • Watching television increases the amount of food we eat (Higgs & Woodward, 2009). • One reason is that watching television can distract us from bodily changes that signal fullness and from cognitive awareness of how much we have already eaten. • Watching television also interferes with memory formation of how much we have eaten, making us vulnerable to overeating at subsequent meals.
Factors in Becoming Overweight • Being overweight runs in families. • Fatty tissues in the body also metabolizes (burns) food more slowly that muscle does. • We also live in an “obesogenic environment” (Apovian, 2010; Heber, 2010). Foods high in sugar and fat are everywhere. • Psychological factors, such as observational learning, stress, and emotional states, also “bombard” us and play a role in obesity.
Body Mass Index • To calculate your body mass index, follow these steps: – Indicate your weight in pounds: ____ pounds – Indicate your height in inches: ____ inches – Divide your weight (item 1) by your height (item 2), and write the outcome here: _________ – Divide the result above (item 3) by your height (item 2), and write the outcome here: _________ – Multiply the number above by 703, and write the product here: _______. This is your body mass index.
Body Mass Index • Example: – For a person who weighs 210 pounds and who is 6 feet tall, divide 210 pounds by 72 inches, which equals 2.917. Then divide 2.917 by 72 inches (item 3), which yields .041. Multiplying .041 (from item 4) by 703 yields a BMI of 28.5.
Body Mass Index • Interpretation: – Underweight = les than 18.5 – Normal weight = 18.5 – 24.9 – Overweight = 25 – 29.9 – Obesity = BMI of 30 or greater • Keep in mind that a BMI greater than 25 may or may not be due to excess body fat. For example, professional athletes may have little fat but weigh more than the average person because they have greater muscle mass.
Eating Disorders • Are characterized by persistent, gross disturbances in eating patterns. • Eating disorders are upsetting and dangerous in themselves, of course, but they are also often connected with deep depression (Wilson et al., 2010).
Anorexia Nervosa • A life-threatening eating disorder characterized by dramatic weight loss and a distorted body image. • Afflicts women during adolescence and young adulthood. • Severe weight loss can prevent ovulation and cause respiratory and cardiovascular problems. • Distortion of the body image— seeing oneself as heavier than one is—is a major feature of the disorder.
Bulimia Nervosa • An eating disorder characterized by repeated cycles of binge eating and purging. • There are various methods of purging. Some people vomit. Other avenues include strict dieting or fasting, the use of laxatives, and engaging in demanding, prolonged exercise regimens.
Origins of the Eating Disorders • Many parents were obsessed with getting their children— especially their infants—to eat. • They also act out against their daughters—letting them know that they consider them unattractive and, prior to the development of the eating disorder, letting them know that they think they should lose weight (Cooper et al., 2001; Crittendan & Dallos, 2009). • One study found a history of childhood sexual abuse in about half of women with bulimia nervosa, as opposed to a rate of about 7% among women without the disorder (Deep et al., 1999). • The sociocultural climate also affects eating behavior. Slimness is idealized in the United States.
SEXUAL MOTIVATION AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION
Hormones and Sexual Motivation • Sex hormones can be said to fuel the sex drive. • The most common sexual problem among women is lack of sexual desire or interest, and the sex drive in women is also connected to testosterone levels (Downey, 2009). • Although men produce 7 to 10 times the testosterone produced by women, women produce androgens (“male” sex hormones) in the adrenal glands and the ovaries.
Hormones and Sexual Motivation • Sex hormones promote the development of male and female sex organs and regulate the menstrual cycle. • They also have activating and organizing effects on sexual behavior. • They affect the sex drive and promote sexual response; these are activating effects. • Female mice, rats, cats, and dogs are receptive to males only during estrus, when female sex hormones are plentiful.
Sexual Response and Sexual Behavior • Men show more interest in sex than women do (Fisher et al., 2012). • A survey of more than 1,000 undergraduates found that men reported being more interested than women in casual sex and multiple sex partners (Schmitt et al., 2012). • Women are more likely to want to combine sex with a romantic relationship (Fisher et al., 2012). • William Masters and Virginia Johnson (1966) found that the biological responses of males and females to sexual stimulation are quite similar.
Sexual Response and Sexual Behavior • Masters and Johnson use the term sexual response cycle to describe the changes that occur in the body as men and women become sexually aroused. • They divide the sexual response cycle into four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. • The sexual response cycle is characterized by vasocongestion and myotonia. • Erection, vaginal lubrication, and orgasm are all reflexes. That is, they occur automatically in response to adequate sexual stimulation.
vasocongestion • Is the swelling of the genital tissues with blood, causing erection of the penis and swelling of the area surrounding the vaginal opening. • The testes and the nipples swell as blood vessels dilate in these areas.
myotonia • Is muscle tension, which causes grimaces, spasms in the hands and feet, and the spasms of orgasm.
SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE
Excitement Phase • The first phase of the sexual response cycle, which is characterized by muscle tension, increases in the heart rate, and erection in the male and vaginal lubrication in the female.
Excitement Phase Male • Erection • The scrotal skin thickens, becoming less baggy. • The testes increase in size and become elevated. • The nipples may erect in both male and female. • Heart rate and blood pressure in both sexes increases. Female • Vaginal lubrication, which may start 10 to 30 seconds after sexual stimulation begins. • Vasocongestion swells the clitoris, flattens and spreads the vaginal lips, and expands the inner part of the vagina. • The breasts enlarge, and blood vessels near the surface become more prominent.
Plateau Phase • Second phase, which is characterized by increases in vasocongestion, muscle tension, heart rate, and blood pressure in preparation for orgasm. • The level of sexual arousal remains somewhat stable.
Plateau Phase Male • Because of vasocongestion, the circumference of the head of the penis increases somewhat. • The testes are elevated into position for ejaculation (the process of propelling seminal fluid [semen] from the penis) and may reach 1 ½ times their unaroused size. Female • Vasocongestion swells the outer part of the vagina and the inner vagina expands further. • The clitoris withdraws beneath the clitoral hood and shortens. • Breathing becomes rapid, like panting. • Heart rate may increase to 100 to 160 beats per minute. • Blood pressure continue to rise.
Orgasmic Phase • Orgasm – the height or climax of sexual excitement, involving involuntary muscle contraction, release of sexual tensions, and usually, subjective feelings of pleasure.
Orgasmic Phase Male • Muscle contractions propel semen from the body. • Sensations of pleasure tend to be related to the strength of the contractions and the amount of seminal fluid. • The first three to four contractions are generally most intense and occur at 0.8-second intervals (5 contractions every 4 seconds). Female • Manifested by three to fifteen contractions of the pelvic muscles that surround the vaginal barrel. • Blood pressure and heart rate reach a peak, with the heart beating up to 180 times per minute. • Respiration may increase to 40 breaths per minute.
Resolution Phase • The 4th phase, during which the body gradually returns to its prearoused state. • Men enter a refractory period during which they cannot experience another orgasm or ejaculate. • Women do not undergo a refractory period and therefore can become quickly rearoused to the point of repeated (multiple) orgasm if they desire and receive continued sexual stimulation.
SEXUAL BEHAVIORS
Masturbation • Sexual self-stimulation • Some 94% of all males and 63% of all females have masturbated at least once, and among college students, the frequency ranges from “never” to “several times a day” (Laqueur, 2003, Polonsky, 2006). • Male masturbation is most common in the early teens and then declines, whereas females both begin and reach a maximum frequency later. • Most experts on sex view masturbation as a healthy and legitimate—and harmless—sexual activity. In addition, masturbation is seen as providing a means of learning about one’s own sexuality and a way of discovering changes in one’s body such as the emergence of precancerous lumps (Coleman, 2002; Levin, 2007).
Premarital Sex • Traditionally, women have been warned by society that “nice girls don’t do it”; men have been told that although premarital sex is okay for them, they should make sure they marry virgins. This view that premarital sex is permissible for males but not for females is called the double standard (Liang, 2007).
Sexual Orientation • Organizing effect – the directional effect of sex hormones—for example, along typical male or female patterns of mating. • Sexual orientation – the directionality of one’s sexual and romantic interests; that is, whether one is sexually attracted to, and desires to form a romantic relationship with, members of the other gender or of one’s own gender.
Sexual Orientation • Heterosexual – referring to people who are sexually aroused by, and interested in forming romantic relationships with, people of the other gender. • Homosexual – referring to people who are sexually aroused by, and interested in forming romantic relationships with, people of the same gender. – Males with a homosexual orientation are referred as gay males. – Homosexual females are referred to as lesbians – Bisexual people are attracted to both females and males.
Sexual Orientation • Transsexual – persons who believe they were born with the body of the other gender. • Transgenderism – encompasses not only transsexuals but also people who view themselves as a third gender. • Transvestites – who dress in the clothes of the other gender.
Theories of the Origins of Sexual Orientation • Social-cognitive theorists look for the roles of factors such as reinforcement and observational learning. • Reinforcement of sexual behavior with members of one’s own gender—as in reaching orgasm with them when members of the other gender are unavailable—might affect one’s sexual orientation. • Childhood sexual abuse by someone of the same gender could lead to fantasies about sex with people of one’s own gender and affect sexual orientation. • Observation of others engaged in enjoyable male-male or female-female sexual encounters.
SEXUAL DIFFICULTIES
Rape • The act by which one person forces another person to submit to sexual activity. • Most research suggests that there is 14 to 25 percent chance that a woman will be a victim of a rape during her lifetime. • A national survey conducted at 35 universities revealed the startling finding that one out of eight female college students reported having been raped. • Half if them said the rapists were first dates, casual dates, or romantic acquaintances—a phenomenon called date rape.
Rape • In many cases, the rapist uses sex as a means of demonstrating power and control over the victim. In such cases, there is little that is sexually satisfying about a rape to the rapist; instead, the pleasure comes from forcing someone else to be submissive (Gowaty, 2003; Yamawaki, Darby, & Queiroz, 2007). • The repercussions of rape are devastating for the victims. During a rape, women experience fear, terror, and physical pain. Later, victims report shock, disbelief, panic, extreme anxiety, and suspiciousness—reactions that are sometimes intensified by implications that somehow the victim was to blame because of her style of dress or her presence in the wrong neighborhood.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS
Chlamydia • Most widespread STI. • A disease that in women initially produces no symptoms and in men causes a burning sensation during urination and a discharge from the penis. • If left untreated, can lead to pelvic inflammation, urethral damage, arthritis, and even sterility. • Can be cured with antibiotics, most often with azithromycin or doxycycline.
Genital Herpes • A virus related to the cold sores that sometimes appear around the mouth. • Common among college-age students: 17% of 20- to 29- year-olds have the infection (Farrell, 2005).
Trichomoniasis • Infection occurring in the vagina or penis. • Caused by a parasite, it is often without symptoms, especially in men. • Eventually, it can cause painful urination and intercourse, a discharge from the vagina, itching, and an unpleasant odor. • Can be treated with antibiotics.
Gonorrhea • Often has no symptoms but can produce a burning sensation during urination or a discharge from the penis or vagina. • Can lead to fertility problems and, in women, pelvic inflammatory disease.
Syphilis • May affect the brain, the heart, and a developing fetus, and can even be fatal. • First reveals itself through a small sore at the point of sexual contact.
Genital Warts • Caused by the human papilloma virus. • Are small, lumpy warts that form on or near the penis or vagina. • They look like small cauliflower bulbs. • They usually form about 2 months after exposure and can be treated with a drug called metronidazole.
AIDS • Acquired immune deficiency syndrome • Caused by a virus that destroys the body’s immune system • Leading cause of death in the US among men 25 to 44 years of age and the 3rd leading cause of death among women in that age range.
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
Achievement Motivation • Many students persist in studying despite being surrounded by distractions. Many people strive relentlessly to get ahead, to “make it,” to earn large sums of money, to invent, to accomplish the impossible.
Achievement Motivation • Psychologist David McClelland (1958) helped pioneer the assessment of achievement motivation through evaluation of fantasies. • One method involves the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), developed by Henry Murray. • The test contains cards with pictures and drawings that are subject to various interpretations. Individuals are shown one or more test cards and asked to construct stories about the pictured theme: to indicate what led up to it, what the characters are thinking and feeling, and what is likely to happen.
Achievement Motivation • Classic studies find that people with high achievement motivation earn higher grades than people with comparable learning ability but lower achievement motivation. They are more likely to earn high salaries and be promoted than less motivated people with similar opportunities (Story et al., 2009). • McClelland (1965) used the TAT to sort college students into groups— students with high achievement motivation and students with low achievement motivation. • 83% of college graduates with high achievement motivation found jobs in occupations characterized by risk, decision making, and the chance for great success, such as business management, sales, or self- employment. • 70% chose nonentrepreneurial positions showed low achievement motivation.
Achievement Motivation • Performance goals are usually met through extrinsic rewards such as praise and income. • Tangible rewards • Learning goals usually lead to intrinsic rewards, such as self- satisfaction. • Enhancing knowledge and skills
EMOTION
emotion • A state of feeling that has cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components. • Strong emotions are associated with arousal of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).The greater the arousal, the more intense the emotion. • Fear, which usually occurs in response to a threat, involves cognitions that one is in danger as well as arousal of the sympathetic nervous system (e.g., rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension). • As a response to a social provocation, anger involves cognitions that the provocateur should be paid back, arousal of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, and tendencies to attack.
Autonomic Nervous System
Components of Emotions EMOTION PHYSIOLOGICAL COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL Fear Anger Depression Sympathetic arousal Sympathetic and parasympathetic arousal Parasympathetic arousal Belief that one is in danger Frustration or belief that one is being mistreated. Thoughts of helplessness, hopelessness, worthlessness Avoidance tendencies Attack tendencies Inactivity, possible self- destructive tendencies
The Expression of Emotion • Happiness and sadness are found in all cultures, but do people around the world express emotions in the same way? • Smiling is apparently a universal sign of friendliness and approval. • Baring the teeth, as noted by Charles Darwin (1872) in the 19th century, may be a universal sign of anger. • There is no perfect one-to-one relationship between facial expressions and emotions (Matsumoto et al., 2008). • Facial expressions sometimes occur in the absence of the emotion they are thought to accompany (Porter & ten Brinke, 2008). • The voice, posture, and gestures also provide clues to what people are feeling and are about to do (Campos, 2000).
Positive Psychology • Deals with positive emotions such as happiness and love, optimism and hope, and joy and sensual pleasures. • Are some people just “born happy,” or do life experiences determine happiness? What factors interfere with happiness? • David Lykken (2001) believe that genetic factors play a powerful role in happiness. They note that happiness tends to run in families and that we tend to have a more or less stable level of happiness throughout much of our lives.
Positive Psychology • Which life experiences contribute to happiness? • Despite the saying “Money can’t buy you happiness,” people tend to be happier when they live in affluent societies and earn decent incomes (W. Johnson & Krueger, 2006). • Chinese students tend to think of happiness in terms of feelings of contentment, inner harmony, personal achievement, physical wellness, spiritual enhancement, hopefulness about the future, generosity, and self- development (Lu, 2001).
Positive Psychology • People who are married or in enduring relationships tend to be happier than loners (Waite et al., 2009) • Happy people are also more open to new experiences and new relationships (Demir & Weitekamp, 2007). • People at any income level can make themselves miserable when they compare themselves to people with more (Cheung & Leung, 2008).
Positive Psychology • Happiness also tends to be accompanied by optimism—a cognitive bias toward assuming that things will work out (Ho et al., 2010). • Happy people often believe in their ability to effect change and then try harder. • They are also willing to pat themselves when things go wrong—attitudes that contribute to self-esteem, another factor in happiness.
The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis • Facial expressions reflect emotional states, and our ability to “read” these expressions enables us to interact appropriately with other people. • It is known that various emotional states give rise to certain patterns of electrical activity in the facial muscles and in the brain (Davis et al., 2009). • But can it work the other way around?
The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis • Argues that facial expressions can also affect our emotional state; that is, the causal relationship between emotions and facial expressions can also work in the opposite direction. • The view that stereotypical facial expressions can contribute to stereotypical emotions.
The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis • Smiling is usually a response to feeling good within, but experimental research into the facial-feedback hypothesis suggests that the act of smiling can also enhance our moods.
THEORIES OF EMOTION
James-Lange External stimulus Arousal and Action Appraisal of Arousal and Action Events trigger specific arousal patterns and actions. Emotions result from our appraisal of our body responses. Experiencing the specific emotion
Cannon-Bard External Stimulus Processing by Brain Arousal and Action Experiencing the emotion Events are first processed by the brain. Body patterns of arousal, action, and our emotional responses are then triggered simultaneously.
Cognitive Appraisal External Stimulus Physiological arousal Interpretation of arousal according to situation Experiencing the emotion Events and arousal are appraised by the individual. The emotional response stems from the person’s appraisal of the situation and his or her level of arousal.
The Polygraph: Just What Do Lie Detectors Detect? • Lying, for better or worse, is a part of life. • People admit to lying in 14% of their emails, 27% of their face-to-face interactions, and 37% of their phone calls (Hancock, 2007). • Political leaders lie to get elected. • When people communicate with online “matches” men are most likely to lie about their personal assets and their goals for a relationship (Hall et al., 2010). • Women are most likely to lie about their weight (Hall et al., 2010). • Most people lie to their lovers, usually about other relationships (Toma et al., 2008).
The Polygraph: Just What Do Lie Detectors Detect? • People also lie about their qualifications to get jobs, and of course some people lie about whether or not they have committed a crime. • Facial expressions often offer clues to deceit, but some people can lie with a straight face—or a smile. • The American Polygraph Association claims that use of the polygraph is 85% to 95% accurate. • In one experiment, people were able to reduce the accuracy of polygraph-based judgments to about 50% by biting their tongues (to produce pain) or pressing their toes against the floor (to tense muscles) while being interrogated (Honts & Handler, 2011).
THANK YOU. Prepared by: Maria Angela L. Diopol
ASSIGNMENT • Make an illustration of the three emotion theories by providing examples based from your own personal experiences. • To be drawn on a short bond paper with brief explanations. • 15 points

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Motivation and Emotion

  • 1.
    Motivation and Emotion SOSC2 General Psychology
  • 2.
  • 3.
    • The psychologyof motivation is concerned with the why of behavior. • Why do we eat? • Why do some of us strive to get ahead? • Why do some of us ride motorcycles at breakneck speeds? • Why are some people aggressive?
  • 4.
    motivation • The statein which an organism experiences an inducement or incentive to do something. • Refers to the forces that act on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior.
  • 5.
    motive • A hypotheticalstate within an organism that propels the organism toward a goal. • “Hypothetical state” because motives are not seen and measured directly. • Inferred from behavior. • Motives may take the form of needs, drives, and incentives, which are also inferred from behavior.
  • 6.
    need • A stateof deprivation • Physiological and psychological • Needs gives rise to drives.
  • 7.
    Needs Physiological needs • Oxygen •Food • Drink • Pain avoidance • Proper temperature • Elimination of waste products Psychological needs • Achievement • Power • Self-esteem • Social approval • Belonging
  • 8.
    drive • A conditionof arousal in an organism that is associated with a need. • Physiological drives are the counterparts of physiological needs. • Drives arouse us to action and tend to be stronger when we have been deprived longer. – Ex. We are hungrier when we haven’t eaten for 10 hours than 1 hour.
  • 9.
    incentive • An object,person, or situation perceived as capable of satisfying a need or as desirable for its own sake. – Ex. Money, food, a sexually attractive person, social approval, attention
  • 10.
  • 11.
    The Evolutionary Perspective •Notes that many animals are neurally “prewired--”that is, born with preprogrammed tendencies—to respond to certain situations in certain ways. • Spiders spin webs instinctively. Bees “dance” instinctively to communicate the location of food to other bees. • Species-specific behaviors are also called instincts and are inborn.
  • 13.
    instinct • An inheriteddisposition to activate specific behavior patterns that are designed to reach certain goals. • William James (1890) numbered love, sympathy, and modesty as social instincts. • William McDougall (1908) compiled 12 “basic” instincts, including hunger, sex, and self-assertion.
  • 14.
    Drive-Reductionism and Homeostasis •Drive-reduction theory is the view that organisms learn to engage in behaviors that have the effect of reducing drives. • According to Clark Hull (1930), primary drives such as hunger, thirst, and pain trigger arousal (tension) activate behavior. • We learn to engage in behaviors that reduce the tension. • We also acquire drives—called acquired drives—through experience. – Ex. We may acquire a drive for money because money enables us to obtain food, drink, and homes, which protect us from crime and extremes of temperature.
  • 15.
    Drive-Reductionism and Homeostasis • Sensationsof hunger motivate us to act in ways that will restore the bodily balance. • This tendency to maintain a steady state is called homeostasis.
  • 16.
    The Search forStimulation • In the case of stimulus motives, organisms seek to increase stimulation. • A classic study conducted at McGill University in Montreal during the 1950s suggests the importance of sensory stimulation and activity.
  • 17.
    The Search forStimulation • Stimulus motives provide an evolutionary advantage. • Animals that are active and motivated to explore and manipulate their environment are more likely to survive. – Ex. If you know where the nearest tall tree is, you’re more likely to escape a leopard and transmit your genes to future generations.
  • 18.
    Humanistic Theory • AbrahamMaslow (1908-1970) suggest that human behavior is not just mechanical and aimed toward survival and the reduction of tension. • He believed that people are also motivated by a conscious desire for personal growth. • We are separated from other animals by our capacity for self-actualization, or self-initiated striving to become what we believe we are capable of being.
  • 20.
    Maslow’s Hierarchy ofNeeds Self- actualization A state of self- fulfillment Esteem The need to develop a sense of self-worth Love and Belongingness The need to obtain and give affection (intimate relationships, social groups, friends) Safety Needs The need for a safe and secure environment (housing, clothing, crime) Physiological Needs The primary drives: needs for water, food, sleep, elimination, warmth, pain avoidance, and sex
  • 22.
    • 5. Cognitiveneeds - knowledge, meaning, etc. • 6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. • 8. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self actualization.
  • 23.
    Cognitive Perspectives on Motivation •According to cognitive-dissonance theory, people are generally motivated to hold consistent beliefs and to justify their behavior. • That is why we are generally more likely to appreciate what we must work to obtain.
  • 24.
  • 25.
    • We needfood to survive, but for many of us, food means more than survival. • Food is a symbol of family togetherness and caring. • We associate food with the nurturance of the parent- child relationship and with visits home on holidays. • Friends and relatives offer us food when we enter their homes, and saying no may be viewed as a personal rejection.
  • 26.
    • What triggersyour hunger driver? Are you only interested in eating when your blood sugar level falls, or do the sights and aromas of foods stimulate you to eat?
  • 27.
    Biological Influences onHunger • Satiety – the state of being satisfied; fullness
  • 28.
    Biological Influences on Hunger •Chewing and swallowing provide feelings of satiety. • An empty stomach leads to stomach contractions, which we call hunger pangs. • When we are deprived of food, the level of sugar in the blood drops. The drop in blood sugar is communicated to the hypothalamus, which stokes the hunger drive.
  • 30.
    Biological Influences on Hunger •Ventromedial nucleus (VMN) – a central area on the underside of the hypothalamus that appears to function as a stop-eating center. – Hyperphagic – characterized by excessive eating • Lateral Hypothalamus – an area at the side of the hypothalamus that appears to function as a start-eating center. – Aphagic – characterized by undereating
  • 31.
    • How manytimes have you been made hungry by the sight or aroma of food? • How many times have you eaten not because you were hungry but because you were at a relative’s home or hanging around a cafeteria or coffee shop? • Or because you felt anxious or depressed? • Or simply because you were bored?
  • 32.
    Psychological Influences on Hunger •Watching television increases the amount of food we eat (Higgs & Woodward, 2009). • One reason is that watching television can distract us from bodily changes that signal fullness and from cognitive awareness of how much we have already eaten. • Watching television also interferes with memory formation of how much we have eaten, making us vulnerable to overeating at subsequent meals.
  • 33.
    Factors in BecomingOverweight • Being overweight runs in families. • Fatty tissues in the body also metabolizes (burns) food more slowly that muscle does. • We also live in an “obesogenic environment” (Apovian, 2010; Heber, 2010). Foods high in sugar and fat are everywhere. • Psychological factors, such as observational learning, stress, and emotional states, also “bombard” us and play a role in obesity.
  • 34.
    Body Mass Index •To calculate your body mass index, follow these steps: – Indicate your weight in pounds: ____ pounds – Indicate your height in inches: ____ inches – Divide your weight (item 1) by your height (item 2), and write the outcome here: _________ – Divide the result above (item 3) by your height (item 2), and write the outcome here: _________ – Multiply the number above by 703, and write the product here: _______. This is your body mass index.
  • 35.
    Body Mass Index •Example: – For a person who weighs 210 pounds and who is 6 feet tall, divide 210 pounds by 72 inches, which equals 2.917. Then divide 2.917 by 72 inches (item 3), which yields .041. Multiplying .041 (from item 4) by 703 yields a BMI of 28.5.
  • 36.
    Body Mass Index •Interpretation: – Underweight = les than 18.5 – Normal weight = 18.5 – 24.9 – Overweight = 25 – 29.9 – Obesity = BMI of 30 or greater • Keep in mind that a BMI greater than 25 may or may not be due to excess body fat. For example, professional athletes may have little fat but weigh more than the average person because they have greater muscle mass.
  • 37.
    Eating Disorders • Arecharacterized by persistent, gross disturbances in eating patterns. • Eating disorders are upsetting and dangerous in themselves, of course, but they are also often connected with deep depression (Wilson et al., 2010).
  • 38.
    Anorexia Nervosa • Alife-threatening eating disorder characterized by dramatic weight loss and a distorted body image. • Afflicts women during adolescence and young adulthood. • Severe weight loss can prevent ovulation and cause respiratory and cardiovascular problems. • Distortion of the body image— seeing oneself as heavier than one is—is a major feature of the disorder.
  • 39.
    Bulimia Nervosa • Aneating disorder characterized by repeated cycles of binge eating and purging. • There are various methods of purging. Some people vomit. Other avenues include strict dieting or fasting, the use of laxatives, and engaging in demanding, prolonged exercise regimens.
  • 40.
    Origins of theEating Disorders • Many parents were obsessed with getting their children— especially their infants—to eat. • They also act out against their daughters—letting them know that they consider them unattractive and, prior to the development of the eating disorder, letting them know that they think they should lose weight (Cooper et al., 2001; Crittendan & Dallos, 2009). • One study found a history of childhood sexual abuse in about half of women with bulimia nervosa, as opposed to a rate of about 7% among women without the disorder (Deep et al., 1999). • The sociocultural climate also affects eating behavior. Slimness is idealized in the United States.
  • 41.
  • 42.
    Hormones and SexualMotivation • Sex hormones can be said to fuel the sex drive. • The most common sexual problem among women is lack of sexual desire or interest, and the sex drive in women is also connected to testosterone levels (Downey, 2009). • Although men produce 7 to 10 times the testosterone produced by women, women produce androgens (“male” sex hormones) in the adrenal glands and the ovaries.
  • 43.
    Hormones and Sexual Motivation •Sex hormones promote the development of male and female sex organs and regulate the menstrual cycle. • They also have activating and organizing effects on sexual behavior. • They affect the sex drive and promote sexual response; these are activating effects. • Female mice, rats, cats, and dogs are receptive to males only during estrus, when female sex hormones are plentiful.
  • 44.
    Sexual Response andSexual Behavior • Men show more interest in sex than women do (Fisher et al., 2012). • A survey of more than 1,000 undergraduates found that men reported being more interested than women in casual sex and multiple sex partners (Schmitt et al., 2012). • Women are more likely to want to combine sex with a romantic relationship (Fisher et al., 2012). • William Masters and Virginia Johnson (1966) found that the biological responses of males and females to sexual stimulation are quite similar.
  • 45.
    Sexual Response andSexual Behavior • Masters and Johnson use the term sexual response cycle to describe the changes that occur in the body as men and women become sexually aroused. • They divide the sexual response cycle into four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. • The sexual response cycle is characterized by vasocongestion and myotonia. • Erection, vaginal lubrication, and orgasm are all reflexes. That is, they occur automatically in response to adequate sexual stimulation.
  • 46.
    vasocongestion • Is theswelling of the genital tissues with blood, causing erection of the penis and swelling of the area surrounding the vaginal opening. • The testes and the nipples swell as blood vessels dilate in these areas.
  • 47.
    myotonia • Is muscletension, which causes grimaces, spasms in the hands and feet, and the spasms of orgasm.
  • 48.
  • 49.
    Excitement Phase • Thefirst phase of the sexual response cycle, which is characterized by muscle tension, increases in the heart rate, and erection in the male and vaginal lubrication in the female.
  • 50.
    Excitement Phase Male • Erection •The scrotal skin thickens, becoming less baggy. • The testes increase in size and become elevated. • The nipples may erect in both male and female. • Heart rate and blood pressure in both sexes increases. Female • Vaginal lubrication, which may start 10 to 30 seconds after sexual stimulation begins. • Vasocongestion swells the clitoris, flattens and spreads the vaginal lips, and expands the inner part of the vagina. • The breasts enlarge, and blood vessels near the surface become more prominent.
  • 51.
    Plateau Phase • Secondphase, which is characterized by increases in vasocongestion, muscle tension, heart rate, and blood pressure in preparation for orgasm. • The level of sexual arousal remains somewhat stable.
  • 52.
    Plateau Phase Male • Becauseof vasocongestion, the circumference of the head of the penis increases somewhat. • The testes are elevated into position for ejaculation (the process of propelling seminal fluid [semen] from the penis) and may reach 1 ½ times their unaroused size. Female • Vasocongestion swells the outer part of the vagina and the inner vagina expands further. • The clitoris withdraws beneath the clitoral hood and shortens. • Breathing becomes rapid, like panting. • Heart rate may increase to 100 to 160 beats per minute. • Blood pressure continue to rise.
  • 53.
    Orgasmic Phase • Orgasm– the height or climax of sexual excitement, involving involuntary muscle contraction, release of sexual tensions, and usually, subjective feelings of pleasure.
  • 54.
    Orgasmic Phase Male • Musclecontractions propel semen from the body. • Sensations of pleasure tend to be related to the strength of the contractions and the amount of seminal fluid. • The first three to four contractions are generally most intense and occur at 0.8-second intervals (5 contractions every 4 seconds). Female • Manifested by three to fifteen contractions of the pelvic muscles that surround the vaginal barrel. • Blood pressure and heart rate reach a peak, with the heart beating up to 180 times per minute. • Respiration may increase to 40 breaths per minute.
  • 55.
    Resolution Phase • The4th phase, during which the body gradually returns to its prearoused state. • Men enter a refractory period during which they cannot experience another orgasm or ejaculate. • Women do not undergo a refractory period and therefore can become quickly rearoused to the point of repeated (multiple) orgasm if they desire and receive continued sexual stimulation.
  • 57.
  • 58.
    Masturbation • Sexual self-stimulation •Some 94% of all males and 63% of all females have masturbated at least once, and among college students, the frequency ranges from “never” to “several times a day” (Laqueur, 2003, Polonsky, 2006). • Male masturbation is most common in the early teens and then declines, whereas females both begin and reach a maximum frequency later. • Most experts on sex view masturbation as a healthy and legitimate—and harmless—sexual activity. In addition, masturbation is seen as providing a means of learning about one’s own sexuality and a way of discovering changes in one’s body such as the emergence of precancerous lumps (Coleman, 2002; Levin, 2007).
  • 59.
    Premarital Sex • Traditionally,women have been warned by society that “nice girls don’t do it”; men have been told that although premarital sex is okay for them, they should make sure they marry virgins. This view that premarital sex is permissible for males but not for females is called the double standard (Liang, 2007).
  • 60.
    Sexual Orientation • Organizingeffect – the directional effect of sex hormones—for example, along typical male or female patterns of mating. • Sexual orientation – the directionality of one’s sexual and romantic interests; that is, whether one is sexually attracted to, and desires to form a romantic relationship with, members of the other gender or of one’s own gender.
  • 61.
    Sexual Orientation • Heterosexual– referring to people who are sexually aroused by, and interested in forming romantic relationships with, people of the other gender. • Homosexual – referring to people who are sexually aroused by, and interested in forming romantic relationships with, people of the same gender. – Males with a homosexual orientation are referred as gay males. – Homosexual females are referred to as lesbians – Bisexual people are attracted to both females and males.
  • 62.
    Sexual Orientation • Transsexual– persons who believe they were born with the body of the other gender. • Transgenderism – encompasses not only transsexuals but also people who view themselves as a third gender. • Transvestites – who dress in the clothes of the other gender.
  • 64.
    Theories of theOrigins of Sexual Orientation • Social-cognitive theorists look for the roles of factors such as reinforcement and observational learning. • Reinforcement of sexual behavior with members of one’s own gender—as in reaching orgasm with them when members of the other gender are unavailable—might affect one’s sexual orientation. • Childhood sexual abuse by someone of the same gender could lead to fantasies about sex with people of one’s own gender and affect sexual orientation. • Observation of others engaged in enjoyable male-male or female-female sexual encounters.
  • 65.
  • 66.
    Rape • The actby which one person forces another person to submit to sexual activity. • Most research suggests that there is 14 to 25 percent chance that a woman will be a victim of a rape during her lifetime. • A national survey conducted at 35 universities revealed the startling finding that one out of eight female college students reported having been raped. • Half if them said the rapists were first dates, casual dates, or romantic acquaintances—a phenomenon called date rape.
  • 67.
    Rape • In manycases, the rapist uses sex as a means of demonstrating power and control over the victim. In such cases, there is little that is sexually satisfying about a rape to the rapist; instead, the pleasure comes from forcing someone else to be submissive (Gowaty, 2003; Yamawaki, Darby, & Queiroz, 2007). • The repercussions of rape are devastating for the victims. During a rape, women experience fear, terror, and physical pain. Later, victims report shock, disbelief, panic, extreme anxiety, and suspiciousness—reactions that are sometimes intensified by implications that somehow the victim was to blame because of her style of dress or her presence in the wrong neighborhood.
  • 68.
  • 69.
    Chlamydia • Most widespreadSTI. • A disease that in women initially produces no symptoms and in men causes a burning sensation during urination and a discharge from the penis. • If left untreated, can lead to pelvic inflammation, urethral damage, arthritis, and even sterility. • Can be cured with antibiotics, most often with azithromycin or doxycycline.
  • 70.
    Genital Herpes • Avirus related to the cold sores that sometimes appear around the mouth. • Common among college-age students: 17% of 20- to 29- year-olds have the infection (Farrell, 2005).
  • 71.
    Trichomoniasis • Infection occurringin the vagina or penis. • Caused by a parasite, it is often without symptoms, especially in men. • Eventually, it can cause painful urination and intercourse, a discharge from the vagina, itching, and an unpleasant odor. • Can be treated with antibiotics.
  • 72.
    Gonorrhea • Often hasno symptoms but can produce a burning sensation during urination or a discharge from the penis or vagina. • Can lead to fertility problems and, in women, pelvic inflammatory disease.
  • 73.
    Syphilis • May affectthe brain, the heart, and a developing fetus, and can even be fatal. • First reveals itself through a small sore at the point of sexual contact.
  • 74.
    Genital Warts • Causedby the human papilloma virus. • Are small, lumpy warts that form on or near the penis or vagina. • They look like small cauliflower bulbs. • They usually form about 2 months after exposure and can be treated with a drug called metronidazole.
  • 75.
    AIDS • Acquired immunedeficiency syndrome • Caused by a virus that destroys the body’s immune system • Leading cause of death in the US among men 25 to 44 years of age and the 3rd leading cause of death among women in that age range.
  • 76.
  • 77.
    Achievement Motivation • Manystudents persist in studying despite being surrounded by distractions. Many people strive relentlessly to get ahead, to “make it,” to earn large sums of money, to invent, to accomplish the impossible.
  • 78.
    Achievement Motivation • PsychologistDavid McClelland (1958) helped pioneer the assessment of achievement motivation through evaluation of fantasies. • One method involves the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), developed by Henry Murray. • The test contains cards with pictures and drawings that are subject to various interpretations. Individuals are shown one or more test cards and asked to construct stories about the pictured theme: to indicate what led up to it, what the characters are thinking and feeling, and what is likely to happen.
  • 82.
    Achievement Motivation • Classicstudies find that people with high achievement motivation earn higher grades than people with comparable learning ability but lower achievement motivation. They are more likely to earn high salaries and be promoted than less motivated people with similar opportunities (Story et al., 2009). • McClelland (1965) used the TAT to sort college students into groups— students with high achievement motivation and students with low achievement motivation. • 83% of college graduates with high achievement motivation found jobs in occupations characterized by risk, decision making, and the chance for great success, such as business management, sales, or self- employment. • 70% chose nonentrepreneurial positions showed low achievement motivation.
  • 83.
    Achievement Motivation • Performancegoals are usually met through extrinsic rewards such as praise and income. • Tangible rewards • Learning goals usually lead to intrinsic rewards, such as self- satisfaction. • Enhancing knowledge and skills
  • 84.
  • 85.
    emotion • A stateof feeling that has cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components. • Strong emotions are associated with arousal of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).The greater the arousal, the more intense the emotion. • Fear, which usually occurs in response to a threat, involves cognitions that one is in danger as well as arousal of the sympathetic nervous system (e.g., rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension). • As a response to a social provocation, anger involves cognitions that the provocateur should be paid back, arousal of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, and tendencies to attack.
  • 86.
  • 87.
    Components of Emotions EMOTIONPHYSIOLOGICAL COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL Fear Anger Depression Sympathetic arousal Sympathetic and parasympathetic arousal Parasympathetic arousal Belief that one is in danger Frustration or belief that one is being mistreated. Thoughts of helplessness, hopelessness, worthlessness Avoidance tendencies Attack tendencies Inactivity, possible self- destructive tendencies
  • 88.
    The Expression ofEmotion • Happiness and sadness are found in all cultures, but do people around the world express emotions in the same way? • Smiling is apparently a universal sign of friendliness and approval. • Baring the teeth, as noted by Charles Darwin (1872) in the 19th century, may be a universal sign of anger. • There is no perfect one-to-one relationship between facial expressions and emotions (Matsumoto et al., 2008). • Facial expressions sometimes occur in the absence of the emotion they are thought to accompany (Porter & ten Brinke, 2008). • The voice, posture, and gestures also provide clues to what people are feeling and are about to do (Campos, 2000).
  • 90.
    Positive Psychology • Dealswith positive emotions such as happiness and love, optimism and hope, and joy and sensual pleasures. • Are some people just “born happy,” or do life experiences determine happiness? What factors interfere with happiness? • David Lykken (2001) believe that genetic factors play a powerful role in happiness. They note that happiness tends to run in families and that we tend to have a more or less stable level of happiness throughout much of our lives.
  • 91.
    Positive Psychology • Whichlife experiences contribute to happiness? • Despite the saying “Money can’t buy you happiness,” people tend to be happier when they live in affluent societies and earn decent incomes (W. Johnson & Krueger, 2006). • Chinese students tend to think of happiness in terms of feelings of contentment, inner harmony, personal achievement, physical wellness, spiritual enhancement, hopefulness about the future, generosity, and self- development (Lu, 2001).
  • 92.
    Positive Psychology • Peoplewho are married or in enduring relationships tend to be happier than loners (Waite et al., 2009) • Happy people are also more open to new experiences and new relationships (Demir & Weitekamp, 2007). • People at any income level can make themselves miserable when they compare themselves to people with more (Cheung & Leung, 2008).
  • 93.
    Positive Psychology • Happinessalso tends to be accompanied by optimism—a cognitive bias toward assuming that things will work out (Ho et al., 2010). • Happy people often believe in their ability to effect change and then try harder. • They are also willing to pat themselves when things go wrong—attitudes that contribute to self-esteem, another factor in happiness.
  • 95.
    The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis •Facial expressions reflect emotional states, and our ability to “read” these expressions enables us to interact appropriately with other people. • It is known that various emotional states give rise to certain patterns of electrical activity in the facial muscles and in the brain (Davis et al., 2009). • But can it work the other way around?
  • 96.
    The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis •Argues that facial expressions can also affect our emotional state; that is, the causal relationship between emotions and facial expressions can also work in the opposite direction. • The view that stereotypical facial expressions can contribute to stereotypical emotions.
  • 97.
    The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis •Smiling is usually a response to feeling good within, but experimental research into the facial-feedback hypothesis suggests that the act of smiling can also enhance our moods.
  • 99.
  • 100.
    James-Lange External stimulus Arousal and Action Appraisal of Arousaland Action Events trigger specific arousal patterns and actions. Emotions result from our appraisal of our body responses. Experiencing the specific emotion
  • 102.
    Cannon-Bard External Stimulus Processing byBrain Arousal and Action Experiencing the emotion Events are first processed by the brain. Body patterns of arousal, action, and our emotional responses are then triggered simultaneously.
  • 104.
    Cognitive Appraisal External Stimulus Physiological arousal Interpretationof arousal according to situation Experiencing the emotion Events and arousal are appraised by the individual. The emotional response stems from the person’s appraisal of the situation and his or her level of arousal.
  • 107.
    The Polygraph: Just WhatDo Lie Detectors Detect? • Lying, for better or worse, is a part of life. • People admit to lying in 14% of their emails, 27% of their face-to-face interactions, and 37% of their phone calls (Hancock, 2007). • Political leaders lie to get elected. • When people communicate with online “matches” men are most likely to lie about their personal assets and their goals for a relationship (Hall et al., 2010). • Women are most likely to lie about their weight (Hall et al., 2010). • Most people lie to their lovers, usually about other relationships (Toma et al., 2008).
  • 109.
    The Polygraph: JustWhat Do Lie Detectors Detect? • People also lie about their qualifications to get jobs, and of course some people lie about whether or not they have committed a crime. • Facial expressions often offer clues to deceit, but some people can lie with a straight face—or a smile. • The American Polygraph Association claims that use of the polygraph is 85% to 95% accurate. • In one experiment, people were able to reduce the accuracy of polygraph-based judgments to about 50% by biting their tongues (to produce pain) or pressing their toes against the floor (to tense muscles) while being interrogated (Honts & Handler, 2011).
  • 110.
  • 111.
    ASSIGNMENT • Make anillustration of the three emotion theories by providing examples based from your own personal experiences. • To be drawn on a short bond paper with brief explanations. • 15 points