Practical applications and analysis in Research Methodology Hafsa Ranjha
practical application in research, reviews of qualitative and mixed method studies, analysis, processing the data, data editing , data coding , classification of data, analysis of data, parametric test, non parametric test in
Research Methodology
Practical applications and analysis in Research Methodology Hafsa Ranjha
practical application in research, reviews of qualitative and mixed method studies, analysis, processing the data, data editing , data coding , classification of data, analysis of data, parametric test, non parametric test in
Research Methodology
Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision-making.
The material is consolidated from different sources on the basic concepts of Statistics which could be used for the Visualization an Prediction requirements of Analytics.
I deeply acknowledge the sources which helped me consolidate the material for my students.
Research methodology - Analysis of DataThe Stockker
Processing & Analysis of Data, Data editing, Benefits of data editing, Data coding, Classification of data, CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING THE ATTRIBUTES, CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF INTERVAL, TABULATION of data, Types of tables, Graphing of data, Bar chart, Pie chart, Line graph, histogram, Polygon / ogive, Analysis of Data, Descriptive Analysis, Uni-Variate Analysis, Bivariate Analysis, Multi-Variate Analysis, Causal Analysis, Inferential Analysis, PARAMETRIC TESTS, Non parametric Test,
In nearly every country women and men are routinely denied their reproductive and sexual rights under the pretext of religious beliefs and cultural and traditional practices. As a result, men and women suffer unnecessarily because they lack access to the health care services they need – family planning and contraception, safe sex methods, comprehensive sexuality education and safe abortion.
Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision-making.
The material is consolidated from different sources on the basic concepts of Statistics which could be used for the Visualization an Prediction requirements of Analytics.
I deeply acknowledge the sources which helped me consolidate the material for my students.
Research methodology - Analysis of DataThe Stockker
Processing & Analysis of Data, Data editing, Benefits of data editing, Data coding, Classification of data, CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING THE ATTRIBUTES, CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF INTERVAL, TABULATION of data, Types of tables, Graphing of data, Bar chart, Pie chart, Line graph, histogram, Polygon / ogive, Analysis of Data, Descriptive Analysis, Uni-Variate Analysis, Bivariate Analysis, Multi-Variate Analysis, Causal Analysis, Inferential Analysis, PARAMETRIC TESTS, Non parametric Test,
In nearly every country women and men are routinely denied their reproductive and sexual rights under the pretext of religious beliefs and cultural and traditional practices. As a result, men and women suffer unnecessarily because they lack access to the health care services they need – family planning and contraception, safe sex methods, comprehensive sexuality education and safe abortion.
Plastics additives are the substances that are added in polymer during reaction in the final stage or in the process of polymer/plastic production. These additives help in improving the characteristics of polymers such as strength, shine, durability and heat sensitivity. The global plastic additives market in this report is estimate in terms of revenue and volume.
Senegalcrafts is an e-commerce as well as informative website concentrating on Senegalese bamboo art. Both antiques and contemporary bamboo art works, Senegalcrafts introduces, are for sale.
Hand made by artisans in Africa, these baskets bring amazing craftsmanship into our spaces. Handwoven by an association of more than 100 rural Wolof women of Senegal, these baskets create a fun and textural way to store everything from toys to craft supplies, linens to laundry.
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Focus of this presentation...
• What is SRHR?
• What do we know about SRHR and child marriage in South Asia?
• What are the gaps?
• How do we ensure SRHR of girls and young women affected by child marriage?
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The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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2. Session Objectives
To be able to;
• Answer the research questions:
What results do you need to show and in what format
(tables, graphs, charts etc.)
Selection of data analysis methods (principles and concepts)
• Identify, evaluate and apply data analysis packages – software
available, open source
• Plan analysis of own data and carry out exploratory analysis
• Carry out formal data analysis using different tools and methods
e.g. R
3. Research Process
• Problem definition
• Literature review
• Objective & hypothesis
• Study design
• Sampling
• Data collection
• Data management
• Formal analysis
• Reporting
• Publication
• Data archiving or
publication
Project development implementation Communicating findings
Definition of problem
domain & how the
specific problem fits in
Identification of gaps,
appropriate methods &
theory
Research will approve or
disapprove the hypothesis
Research strategy to be
used, sample size,
sampling frame
Sample selection
Data collection tools
Database development and
data cleaning
Exploration, description,
modelling & interpretation
of statistical outputs
Choice of reporting
media & format
Advise on presentation
of results
Data sharing media
4. Data Analysis – Guiding Principles
Translating Research Questions / Objectives / Hypotheses into an
‘analysis plan’
• Used our research questions / objectives / hypotheses to design
the study – experiment or survey, questions to ask & data to
collect
• We use them again to plan the analysis – what differences do I
need to show, what are my response variables, what types of
model may I need to use etc.
• This is often a good time to draft tables and graphs which you
think will help answer the questions
5. Data Analysis – Multi-level Data Structures
• Many studies are designed at different levels and collect data at these
multiple levels
• E.g. in experiments this could be animals or plots → blocks and for survey this
may be animal → household → village → district.
• Another aspect of ‘levels’ is repeated measurements over time.
• These levels must not be forgotten when we reach analysis stage –
which level do we summarise each variable at? What is our ‘unit of
analysis’?
• For formal analysis then there are advanced methods that allow the
data to be analysed in a way that allows for the multi-level data
structure (including variation).
• The analysis can often be simplified into fewer dimensions by
summarising particular aspects
• e.g. means between two points in time, the slope of the trend between two
points, the value reached at the end.
6. Data Analysis – Response & Explanatory
variables
Terms are discipline specific:
Response ≡ Dependent variable ≡ y
Explanatory ≡ Independent variable ≡ x’s
• Explanatory variables can be continuous or discrete
• In epidemiology they can be ‘confounding’ or biological
‘interacting’*
• In economics they can be exogenous or endogenous
*Note that statistical confounding and interactions have different
interpretations
7. Data Analysis – Variable Types
• Variables can be:
CONTINUOUS or DISCRETE
• In analysis we may sometimes convert continuous data to discrete
• Both Response and Explanatory variables can be continuous or
discrete.
8. Data Analysis – Aim of Exploratory Analysis
• Data exploration is the first stage to any analysis of the data –
people often jump straight to formal analysis and models but it
is at this stage where you will identify patterns and ‘odd’ data
• In some cases this may be 90% of the analysis you do on the
data (e.g. Case Study 11)
• The more complicated the data set the more interesting and
necessary the exploratory phase becomes.
• With some expertise in data management we can highlight the
important patterns within the data and list the types of
statistical models and their forms that need to be fitted at the
next stage.
10. Data Analysis – Exploratory Analysis Methods
(Continuous & Discrete Variables)
Tools for exploratory analysis:
• Means & ranges Case Study 2
• 1 & 2-way tables of means Case Study 3
• Frequency tables Case Study 3 & Case Study 8 – use of Excel pivot tables!
• Histograms Case Study 11
• Scatterplots Case Study 1 & Case Study 3
• Boxplots Case Study 3
• Bar charts & pie charts Case Study 11
• Trend graphs, survival curves Case Study 3
Identify patterns and unusual variables – e.g. outliers, zeros
Measures of variation – variance, standard deviation, confidence interval,
standard error, CV
Transformation of variables?
11. Data Analysis – Confirmatory / Formal Analysis
Exploratory analysis was the first part of the analysis of our
research data – to gain initial understanding of patterns that
exist in the data and suggest further analysis needs
By the time we reach Confirmatory / Formal analysis we
have refined our objectives and these should clearly define
exactly what type of further statistical analysis we need (and
which models to use)
In exploratory analysis it is difficult to look at many variables
at the same time – formal analysis allows us to do this and be
able to see which variables are more important and others.
12. Data Analysis – Confirmatory / Formal
Analysis (Some options…)
(Non-parametric equivalents
for small samples)
Response / Dependent Variable(s)
Discrete Continuous
Explanatory /
Independent
Variable(s)
Discrete
Chi-square/ Regression
(Logistic – binary;
Poisson - count)
T-Test / Analysis of
Variance (/ Regression)
Continuous
Regression (Logistic –
binary; Poisson - count)
Correlation / Linear
Regression
Both
Regression (Logistic –
binary; Poisson - count)
ANOVA / Linear
Regression
13. Data Analysis – Confirmatory / Formal Analysis
(Some advanced options…)
• Mixed-effects models (REML) – incorporates random effects
including spatial & temporal repeated measurements; better at
managing data with many levels of hierarchy; used a lot in
epidemiology, animal/plant genetics.
• Survival models.
• Multivariate (> 1 y) methods– can be both parametric & non-
parametric).
• Proportional-odds models when categorical response with both
than 2 categories.
14. Data Analysis – Confirmatory / Formal Analysis
Concepts
The underlying concept in formal statistical modeling is:
Data = Pattern + Residual
‘Data’ are the raw data (responses) that you collected, or sometimes may be
summaries derived from the raw data*. They could also be transformed
values*
‘Pattern’ is all the variables (continuous or discrete) that are in the design of
the study (e.g. treatment) or have been selected in your exploratory analysis
as explaining some of the differences in the ‘Data’
‘Residual’ is the variation we can’t explain by the ‘Pattern’.
The aim of our formal analysis is to put as much of the
variation as possible into the ‘Pattern’ while keeping the
model as simple as possible…easy
*See earlier slides
15. Data Analysis – Confirmatory / Formal Analysis:
Correlation & simple Linear Regression 1
We will use correlation & fitting a
straight line to data to explain the
concepts of statistical modeling:
• The simplest way of looking at the
relationship between an x-variable
and a y-variable is with the
CORRELATION.
• An extension of this is to use a
LINEAR REGRESSION model to fit a
straight line through the points (Case
study 3)
• To look at how well this model is
fitting we use an ‘analysis of
variance’ – the amount of variation in
the Pattern vs. in the Residual
16. Data Analysis – Confirmatory / Formal Analysis:
Correlation & simple Linear Regression 2
Linear regression and similar models present the analysis in an
‘analysis of variance’ table that looks like (Section 3.2):
In this example the p-value will tell you if the slope of the line is
significantly different from 0 (i.e. a flat line) (Section 5)
Models such as Logistic for binary data and proportions or
Poisson for counts give a similar table but it is now the ‘analysis
of deviance’ with similar interpretations (Section 10.2
Source of
variation
d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r (F-value) p-value
Slope of line 1
Residual (error) N-2
Total N-1
17. Data Analysis – Confirmatory / Formal Analysis:
Correlation & simple Linear Regression 3
A key aspect of any
model is the ‘model
checking’ – part of this is
done through
examination of the
residuals.
For all regression models
which assume that
either the data or the
residuals are ‘normal’
then we use the same
assumptions of
independence,
randomness and normal
distribution
18. Data Analysis – Confirmatory / Formal Analysis:
Parameter Estimates & Least Square Means
We also look at the parameter estimates and their standard
errors – for the linear regression example the parameter estimate
is the slope (and intercept). For more complex models and those
with discrete explanatory variable we will use the parameter
estimates to compare levels of the discrete variables (Case Study 3
for examples & discussion).
For models containing discrete variables as explanatory /
independent variables we will often want to present Means and
Standard Errors and compare these (with t-test if comparing 2 or
multiple comparison tests) (Section 6).
19. Data Analysis – Confirmatory / Formal Analysis:
Exercise
Identify what sort of model you may use in your research (check
the Statistical Modeling Teaching Guide) – e.g. linear regression
(section 3), designed experiment (section 4), response data which
are proportions or binary (section 10), count response data
(section 11), survival data (section 12).
Which parameters may be included in your model as the Pattern
Draw a pretend analysis of variance / deviance or parameter
estimates table of what you may expect to see in the analysis
20. Features Excel Stata SPSS SAS R
Learning curve Gradual/flat Steep/gradual Gradual/flat Pretty steep Pretty steep
User interface Point-and-click Programming/point-
and-click
Mostly point-and-
click
Programming Programming
Data
manipulation
Weak/moderate Very strong Moderate Very strong Very strong
Data analysis Modest Powerful Powerful Powerful/versatile Powerful/versatile
Graphics Very good Very good Very good Good Excellent
Cost
Part of MS office Affordable
(perpetual
licenses, renew
only when
upgrade)
Expensive (with
annual license
renewal )
Expensive
Annual Renewal
Open source
(free)
Data Analysis – Application (Statistical Software
Packages)
21. Data Analysis – Application (Using
R)
Outline
• Installing R
• R Environment
Command prompt
RStudio
Setting your workspace
• Loading and installing R packages
• Importing data into R - *.csv/*.xls
• Saving R data
• Data exploration – summary statistics
• Graphing in R - boxplot
• Data analysis – T-test/linear & logistic regression
22. Introduction to R
Installing R
- Download R from http://cran.r-project.org
CRAN – Comprehensive R Archive Network
R version changes over time, the current one is E-
2.15.0
- Installing RStudio
- Setting up the work environment
23. Introduction to R
R Environment
Command prompt
R is primarily a command driven software where instructions are typed at
the command prompt (> )
R is case sensitive
Rstudio
Rstudio has limited set of commands that can be selected and executed from
the menu
Setting your workspace
It is important to set R preferences to suit your work environment, one such
setting is the working directory.
Working directory is set using the command setwd
setwd("D:/My Documents/R course") or from File->change dir on the menu
Take note of / R will not recognize when specifying subdirectories
24. Introduction to R
Loading and installing R packages
Modules or sets of functions are referred to as PACKAGES in R. Some packages
are part of the base installation while others have to be installed separately.
There are several user-contributed packages.
Type library() to view installed packages
To view functions within a package type
library(help=“packagename”) e.g. library(help=stats) – no quotes
Install packages using the menu Packages->Install package(s) ….
Use find(“item”) command to identify the package containing an item of
interest
e.g. find(“plot”), if you are sure of the exact name otherwise use
apropos(“item”)
25. Introduction to R
Importing data into R - *.csv/*.xls
Although it is possible to enter data directly into R, importing data in a spreadsheet format is more
efficient.
Use:
i. Read.table – to import space separated data with column headings (*.txt)
prod1 <- read.table("D://My Documents/R course/PROD2B.txt", header=T, sep=",")
ii. Read.csv – to import comma separated data with column headings (*.csv)
prod2 <- read.csv("D://My Documents/R course/PROD2B.csv", header=T)
To save the file in R
write.table(prod2, file="D://My Documents/R course/proddata2", quote=FALSE)
i. odbcConnectExcel() - to import excel worksheet
prod3<-"D://My Documents/R course/PROD2B.xls“
datachannel<-odbcConnectExcel(prod3)
outprod3 <-sqlFetch(channel= datachannel, sqtable="prod3")
write.table(outprod3, file="D://My Documents/R course/proddata3", quote=FALSE)
26. Introduction to R
Data exploration – summary statistics
One can get summary statistics on all numeric variables in the dataset
using summary(datasetname)
eg. summary(outprod3)
It is also possible to get summary statistics on a particular variable, use
$ to attach variable to the data table
e.g. summary(outprod3$WEIGHT)
Use aggregate to get summary statistics by group/category
e.g. aggregate(data.frame(WEIGHT), by=list(herd=HERD,sex=SEX), mean)
It is advisable to attach a data file to avoid having to specify the data file
all the time particularly for long summaries such as aggregate
attach(outprod3)
27. Introduction to R
Graphing in R – boxplot
- R has powerful graphing features that can be used in data
exploration, such as histograms, boxplot, scatterplot, etc.
histogram(~PCV, n=30, xlab="Packed Cell Volume")
boxplot(PCV, ylab="Packed Cell Volume")
boxplot(PCV~HERD, color="orange", ylab="Packed Cell Volume",
xlab="Herd")
xyplot(PCV~WEIGHT, color="orange", ylab="Packed Cell Volume",
xlab="Weight")
28. Introduction to R
Data analysis – T-test
- t.test(prod2$WEIGHT~prod2$SEX)
Data analysis – Linear Regression
- output1<-lm(PCV~WEIGHT)
- Remember to attach the dataset to make it active
- attach(prod2)
Data analysis – Logistic Regression
-
29. References
Research Methods & Biometrics Teaching Resource – Case Study 1 & 4 have R,
Case Study 2 has ANOVA: many others used in this session as examples. The study
guides are useful for reference material on Explanatory and Formal Analysis.
Take home:
Analysis the Data & Models Chapters in Green Book
Good Statistical Practice for Natural Resources Research – Part IV
R Intro Course Notes – Nicholas Ndiwa
Reading University SSC – Approaches to Analysis of Survey Data; Confidence &
Significance: Key Concepts of Inferential Statistics; Modern methods of analysis;
Analysis of Experimental Data
Editor's Notes
May summarise at the different levels and answer to ‘unit of analysis’ is that IT DEPENDSExamples for variability at different levels including e.g. animal breeding where we look at how different animals are in the same household and then in the same environment.Draw diagram of response changes over time (e.g. plant/animal growth) and how we can analysis various parts of the graph – average, total, final, slope etc.
Exogenous = Determined by variables outside the system / model; Endogenous = Value determined by states of other variables a.k.a. correlated (= confounded if completely determined)‘Confounding’ = Confounding is a distortion of an association between an exposure (E) and disease (D) brought about by extraneous factors (C1, C2 etc). This problem occurs when E is associated with C and C is an independent risk factor for D. For example, smoking (C) confounds the relationship between alcohol consumption (E) and lung cancer (D), since alcohol and smoking are related, and smoking (C) is an independent risk factor for lung cancer (D).Biological interacting = Cccurs when there is a difference in the biologic effect of an exposure according to the presence or absence of another factor. Biological interaction can be thought of as effect modification, and is an example of antagonism and synergy. An example of interaction is seen in the case of oral contraceptive use (E), cardiovascular disease (D), and smoking (C). Because smoking (C) amplifies thromboembolic-disease risk (D) in oral contraceptive users, interaction is said to exist. This is why oral contraceptives carry a boxed warning advising against their use in smokers.
Discrete –distinct values, in experiments could be the treatments, blocks. In surveys could be wealth levels, gender, education level. Can also be count data – e.g. plants germinated, number of times an animal is fed. Binary data also discrete – e.g. presence / absence, yes / no. can only take certain values; can be ordinal, nominal or binary. Continuous – numbers that can take any value. Examples – weights, heights, counts of plants etc.Reasons for changing continuous data to discrete may be due to the distribution of the data or the biological knowledge of the variable and where differences may occur, and sometimes for simplicity
Put in hyperlink to Case Study 11
Decide on appropriate ways to answer the research questions / hypotheses / objectives & may identify additional ones Decide on which variables to initially explore Develop a provisional, draft report. Understand the data and their variability better. Study frequency distributions for classification variables and decide whether amalgamation of classification levels is needed. Study data distributions and decide whether transformations of data are required.Detect unusual values in the data and decide what to do about them. Investigate the types of patterns inherent in the data & types of relationships that may be present.Provide preliminary initial summaries, arranged in tables and graphs, that provide some of the answers required to meet the objectives. Lay out a plan and a series of objectives for the statistical modeling phase.Decide on which variables to model
Identify which methods work for which type of data: means = cont, 1-way / 2-way tables of means = both, frequency tables = discrete; histograms= both; scatterplots = 2 cont; boxplots = both; bar / pie charts = both Go through the meaning and calculations for measures of variation – or get them to google to see what they find!Note that the calculations are more complex for surveys where we usually have multiple levels of data (households within villages within…)ADD IN HYPERLINKS TO EXAMPLES
Simple formal analysis may use t-tests or chi-square tests – these are similar to exploratory analysis as only look at 2 variables at the same time. These methods are then extended to statistical models such as linear regression.
What’s the equation of a straight line? – y = mx + c where c = intercept and m = gradient. To this straight line we add the residual e which is the vertical difference between the point and the line. Sum of e’s = 0. A linear regression uses what is called ‘least squares’ to minimise the square of all these differences.Read section 3.1 of the statistical guides in the Biometrics & Research Methods CDADD HYPERLINK TO EXAMPLE
Get students to read through section 3.2 of the Study Guide in the CD on Statistical modeling – the maths part!Exercise: 1. Identify what sort of model they may be using (from the type of data they have collected) – e.g. linear regression (section 3), designed experient (section 4), response data which are proportions or binary (section 10), count response data (section 11), survival data (section 12)
Give examples of the use of parameter estimates – take students through Statistical Modeling in Case Study 3ADD HYPERLINK TO CASE STUDY
Search for principal component analysis and install it.