This document provides background information and outlines the scope and methodology of an essay analyzing types of meaning in adjectives found in the story "Beowulf and Grendel". It begins with an introduction describing the problems and aims of the essay. It then reviews relevant theories on adjectives and meaning, including seven types of meaning proposed by Leech. The document concludes by describing the data source, collection, and analysis methods to be used, which will involve identifying types of meaning in adjectives based on Leech's framework. The analysis will focus on adjectives in "Beowulf and Grendel" and relate them to the seven meaning types.
A critical review of recent trends in second language syllabus design and cur...Ehsan Abbaspour
To date, numerous books and research articles have focused on the notion of syllabus design
and curriculum development. Nevertheless, very few works have had an inclusive and concise
look upon the issue. This paper is an account of current trends on syllabus design and
curriculum development in Second Language Acquisition in the recent past decades. This is
hopefully intended to offer a descriptive and critical interpretation of the existing syllabuses in
the domain of language learning and teaching. After a brief introductory remark on
curriculum and syllabus types, 13 of the most prominent syllabuses in SLA will be elaborated
on separately. In pursuit of doing so, definition, rationale, merits, and drawbacks attributed to
each syllabus will be touched upon. Although the emergence of some of these syllabi
coincides with each other, while presenting them, it has been tried to follow a roughly
chronological order of their emergence.
This document discusses language maintenance and shift. It defines language maintenance as the continuing use of a minority language in the face of a dominant language, while language shift refers to one language displacing another in a community's linguistic repertoire. The document then examines factors that can contribute to language shift, including the prestige of the dominant language, economic pressures, and institutional domains like schools. It analyzes language shift patterns among migrant minorities, non-migrant minorities, and migrant majorities. Finally, it discusses factors that accelerate language shift and ways that minority languages can be maintained, such as through community ties, contact with homelands, institutional support, and positive language attitudes.
SOCIOLINGUISTICS:Language Maintenance, Shift and DeathJholy Quintan
This document discusses several topics related to language contact, borrowing, maintenance, shift, and death. It defines key terms like borrowing, language maintenance, and language shift. It also identifies several factors that can influence language shift, such as demographic, attitude/value, economic, social/political factors. Finally, it discusses different types of language death like gradual, sudden, radical, and bottom-to-top death and identifies several causes of rapid language loss and endangerment on a global scale, including natural/environmental causes, political/military causes, social causes, language policy causes, cultural/religious causes, and linguistic causes.
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) analyzes language based on its social context. SFL looks at how language both influences and is influenced by this social context. There are four main types of processes in SFL: material (doing), verbal (saying), mental (sensing), and relational (becoming). Each process has participants that specify who or what is involved. There are also circumstances that provide details about when, where, why, how a process occurs. SFL provides a framework to systematically analyze language based on its social context and the processes, participants, and circumstances used.
Language planning involves systematic efforts to modify language use in a community, while language policy refers to the body of ideas, laws and regulations around planned linguistic changes. There are two levels of language planning - macro (involving governments and complex changes) and micro (focusing on specific issues). Key actors in language planning include government agencies, education agencies, quasi-governmental organizations, and other influential groups. Activities generally involve status planning (modifying a language's use) and corpus planning (modifying the language itself), with the overall goal of language selection, codification, elaboration and implementation. Codification specifically refers to standardizing a language's orthography, grammar and lexicon.
Language is constantly changing across time, space, and social groups. It varies based on factors like age, region, and social status. Linguistic changes can spread from group to group and word to word through a community. Studies of language change examine reasons for changes and identify factors beyond age that influence the direction of changes over time. Social status and gender differences can also promote language change as variations are adopted as norms. Interaction between people provides opportunities for linguistic changes to spread.
The document discusses the grammar of logical meaning through analyzing clauses and clause complexes. It explains that clauses are the basic grammatical units of both written and spoken language. Clauses can be classified as major or minor, independent or dependent, elliptical or non-elliptical, embedded or non-embedded. Clause complexes involve two or more clauses that are logically connected through expansion or projection relations, and taxic relations of parataxis or hypotaxis. Expansion includes elaboration, extension, and enhancement, while projection involves locution and idea.
A critical review of recent trends in second language syllabus design and cur...Ehsan Abbaspour
To date, numerous books and research articles have focused on the notion of syllabus design
and curriculum development. Nevertheless, very few works have had an inclusive and concise
look upon the issue. This paper is an account of current trends on syllabus design and
curriculum development in Second Language Acquisition in the recent past decades. This is
hopefully intended to offer a descriptive and critical interpretation of the existing syllabuses in
the domain of language learning and teaching. After a brief introductory remark on
curriculum and syllabus types, 13 of the most prominent syllabuses in SLA will be elaborated
on separately. In pursuit of doing so, definition, rationale, merits, and drawbacks attributed to
each syllabus will be touched upon. Although the emergence of some of these syllabi
coincides with each other, while presenting them, it has been tried to follow a roughly
chronological order of their emergence.
This document discusses language maintenance and shift. It defines language maintenance as the continuing use of a minority language in the face of a dominant language, while language shift refers to one language displacing another in a community's linguistic repertoire. The document then examines factors that can contribute to language shift, including the prestige of the dominant language, economic pressures, and institutional domains like schools. It analyzes language shift patterns among migrant minorities, non-migrant minorities, and migrant majorities. Finally, it discusses factors that accelerate language shift and ways that minority languages can be maintained, such as through community ties, contact with homelands, institutional support, and positive language attitudes.
SOCIOLINGUISTICS:Language Maintenance, Shift and DeathJholy Quintan
This document discusses several topics related to language contact, borrowing, maintenance, shift, and death. It defines key terms like borrowing, language maintenance, and language shift. It also identifies several factors that can influence language shift, such as demographic, attitude/value, economic, social/political factors. Finally, it discusses different types of language death like gradual, sudden, radical, and bottom-to-top death and identifies several causes of rapid language loss and endangerment on a global scale, including natural/environmental causes, political/military causes, social causes, language policy causes, cultural/religious causes, and linguistic causes.
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) analyzes language based on its social context. SFL looks at how language both influences and is influenced by this social context. There are four main types of processes in SFL: material (doing), verbal (saying), mental (sensing), and relational (becoming). Each process has participants that specify who or what is involved. There are also circumstances that provide details about when, where, why, how a process occurs. SFL provides a framework to systematically analyze language based on its social context and the processes, participants, and circumstances used.
Language planning involves systematic efforts to modify language use in a community, while language policy refers to the body of ideas, laws and regulations around planned linguistic changes. There are two levels of language planning - macro (involving governments and complex changes) and micro (focusing on specific issues). Key actors in language planning include government agencies, education agencies, quasi-governmental organizations, and other influential groups. Activities generally involve status planning (modifying a language's use) and corpus planning (modifying the language itself), with the overall goal of language selection, codification, elaboration and implementation. Codification specifically refers to standardizing a language's orthography, grammar and lexicon.
Language is constantly changing across time, space, and social groups. It varies based on factors like age, region, and social status. Linguistic changes can spread from group to group and word to word through a community. Studies of language change examine reasons for changes and identify factors beyond age that influence the direction of changes over time. Social status and gender differences can also promote language change as variations are adopted as norms. Interaction between people provides opportunities for linguistic changes to spread.
The document discusses the grammar of logical meaning through analyzing clauses and clause complexes. It explains that clauses are the basic grammatical units of both written and spoken language. Clauses can be classified as major or minor, independent or dependent, elliptical or non-elliptical, embedded or non-embedded. Clause complexes involve two or more clauses that are logically connected through expansion or projection relations, and taxic relations of parataxis or hypotaxis. Expansion includes elaboration, extension, and enhancement, while projection involves locution and idea.
Contrastive analysis (ca) by structuralistareejsalem6
Contrastive analysis compares the linguistic structures of two languages to determine their similarities and differences. The contrastive analysis hypothesis states that similarities between languages will be easy for learners, while differences may cause difficulties. It predicts learners will transfer habits from their native language, do well on similar structures but struggle with different ones. For example, Arabic learners of English may have trouble with the SVO word order in English since Arabic is VSO. The hierarchy of difficulty identifies where learners are expected to make errors to help target instruction. However, some studies found learners did not always struggle most with structures differing most from their first language. While the audiolingual method aimed to establish good habits through repetition, contrastive analysis has
Halliday's Ch 6 Summary (Below the Clause Level: Groups and Phrases)Sawsan Ali
This document discusses the experiential and logical structure of nominal groups in clauses. It defines key terms like deictic, numerative, epithet, classifier, and qualifier that describe the types and functions of premodifiers and postmodifiers in a nominal group's experiential structure. It also examines the logical structure and hypotactic relations between elements in a nominal group, with the head being modified in a univariate structure. The functions and ranking of elements in a nominal group are important for understanding its meaning and role in a clause.
The document discusses the critical period hypothesis in second language acquisition. The critical period hypothesis proposes that there is an ideal time period in a person's life for acquiring language skills, and that after a certain age it becomes much more difficult to acquire a new language. The document outlines the historical background of the hypothesis, provides examples of studies that both support and contradict it, and discusses ongoing debates around its claims. It ultimately concludes that while early language acquisition may confer some advantages, there is not enough evidence currently to say whether there truly is a critical period for second language learning.
This document outlines the methodology for an English for Specific Purposes course. It begins with an introduction to methodology and basic principles of language learning, including that it is developmental, active, decision-making, and emotional. It then provides examples of techniques like gaps, variety, prediction, and involvement. A model lesson is described that uses a hotel management case study and group work. Finally, it discusses language learning tasks like role plays, simulations, case studies and projects to integrate skills and encourage creativity.
Second Language Acquisition (Error Analysis)Emeral Djunas
This document discusses error analysis in second language acquisition. It defines error as evidence of a lack of learning, and distinguishes errors from mistakes which are accidental. Error analysis emerged to address limitations of contrastive analysis, finding that errors also result from the complexities of the second language itself, known as intralingual errors. These can be classified by type, language competency, language level, and gravity. Error analysis follows steps of collecting language samples, identifying errors, describing and classifying them, and explaining errors. It informs teaching by showing learning occurs through errors, and helps teachers understand student learning. However, error analysis also has weaknesses like insufficient attention to factors influencing errors.
Sociolinguistics and Language TeachingSheng Nuesca
Language teaching is connected with sociolinguistics in many ways. Different social factors affect language teaching and language learning.
Social factors such as situation, context, and social setting that has roles in language teaching. It describes the main factors which influence linguistic choices and explains how well contemporary teaching can take account of them.
The document discusses politeness and defines it as actions taken to counteract face-threatening acts. It summarizes Brown and Levinson's politeness theory, which is based on the concept of "face" or social identity. The theory outlines two types of face - negative and positive - and describes four politeness strategies - bald on-record, positive politeness, negative politeness, and off-record language. It also discusses Accommodation Theory and how convergence and divergence relate to social differences. Finally, it notes some gender differences in how politeness is expressed.
This document discusses componential analysis and semantic decomposition. Componential analysis involves analyzing linguistic items like word meanings into combinations of defining features that can be used to compare each item. Semantic decomposition believes that word meanings can be built up from simpler words, such as defining "stallion" as a combination of "horse" and "male". Examples are provided for both componential analysis and semantic decomposition.
1. The document discusses anxiety as an individual difference that can impact second language acquisition. It reviews research showing anxiety can be trait-based, state-based, or situation-specific.
2. Instruments like the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale have been used to measure language anxiety and correlate it with language performance. Studies found low-anxiety learners tend to perform better.
3. Factors like poor performance, negative expectations, and communication apprehension can increase language anxiety over time for learners. The relationship between anxiety and other individual differences like intelligence is also discussed.
Tiga instruktur klub bahasa Inggris membahas peningkatan kualitas klub mereka. Mereka sepakat perlu meningkatkan kurikulum agar lebih relevan dengan bahasa Inggris serta memperhatikan kebutuhan siswa yang beragam.
Discourse communities are groups of people who share activities and spend substantial time together. They may be tightly knit speech communities or looser networks. Factors like social class, networks, education, and background influence language use. Gender is a social category that is one part of identity, while sex refers to biological attributes. Discourse and sexuality add the dimension of personal desire. Social variables and identities intersect with language use, as the way people speak is influenced by their group memberships and position in society.
Can bilingualism cause problems for children? Which language should parents speak? Should parents avoid mixing languages? This slideshare accompanies a RALLI film by Dr Vicky Murphy providing some basic information about bilingualism based on the research evidence. http://youtu.be/p9iWG0M5z40
For an index of the RALLI films and slides see: http://ralliindex.blogspot.co.uk
This document discusses Case Theory and Binding Theory within the framework of Government and Binding Theory. It provides three key points:
1. Case Theory explains how case is assigned in sentences, distinguishing between structural case assigned by verbs and prepositions, and inherent case assigned to specific arguments. Principles of Case Theory like the Case Filter ensure DPs receive case.
2. Binding Theory defines the distribution of anaphors, pronouns, and R-expressions based on their binding properties and principles of locality. It interacts with movement and empty categories left by movement.
3. Together, Case Theory and Binding Theory are part of the overall GB model and operate at a representational level beyond D-structure and S
The document discusses various linguistic aspects of verbs and predicates, including:
1. Generic vs. specific predications and how they express regularities vs. instances.
2. Stative vs. dynamic predicates, with examples of sentences containing stative (e.g. "we waited") vs. dynamic (e.g. "something moved") predicates.
3. Durative vs. punctual aspects, how they describe events over time (e.g. "they were sitting") vs. a single point in time (e.g. "they sat down").
4. Telic vs. atelic predicates, where telic predicates have inherent endpoints or goals (e.g.
This document provides an outline of Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST). It begins by defining RST as a theory of text organization that analyzes how parts of a text relate to each other functionally. The document then discusses key aspects of RST, including its principles, relation types (subject matter and presentational), graphical representations, and how to perform an RST analysis. It provides examples to illustrate various relation types like circumstance, motivation, and evidence. The document concludes by noting some issues with RST and implications for its applications in areas like writing research and natural language generation.
This document discusses language imperialism and the spread of the English language. It defines language imperialism as the imposition of one language onto others. It notes that Robert Phillipson wrote about linguistic imperialism in 1992. It discusses Phillipson's theory that organizations like the British Council and World Bank have historically promoted the continued dominance of English globally through intrinsic, extrinsic, and functional arguments. These arguments portray English positively and other languages negatively, emphasize how established English is, and stress English's influence and role in modernity.
This document discusses the linguistic concepts of dialect, register, and style. It defines register as varieties of language defined by their social use, such as the registers of scientific or religious language. Dialect refers to varieties according to the user. The document explores the relationships and overlaps between these concepts. It examines factors that influence register, such as formality, topic, and social roles. Models of analyzing registers along dimensions like field, mode, and tenor are discussed. The principles of stylistic variation and how style relates to formality are also summarized.
This document outlines the process and purpose of conducting a needs analysis for language learners. It discusses defining needs, the various focuses of needs analysis including target needs, learning needs, objective needs, and subjective needs. It provides examples of tools that can be used for needs analysis like questionnaires, interviews, observations. It also discusses evaluating needs analysis in terms of reliability, validity and practicality. Finally, it discusses some issues in needs analysis like determining common vs specialized language needs, and whether needs analysis can ever be truly objective.
This document discusses various types of meanings that words can have, including denotation, connotation, primary meaning, secondary meaning, literal meaning, and figurative meaning. It provides definitions and examples of each. Specifically, it defines denotation as the core meaning found in a dictionary, while connotation refers to additional meanings and associations beyond the denotative meaning. Primary meaning is the first meaning that comes to mind for a word, while secondary meanings are more context-dependent. Literal meaning is the basic or usual meaning, whereas figurative meaning uses words in a non-literal way like in metaphors or similes.
The document discusses different types of meaning in language as classified by linguist G. Leech. It describes conceptual meaning as the essential, logical meaning of language. Associative meaning includes connotative meaning, which is the additional implied meaning beyond conceptual content, as well as social, affective, reflective, collocative, and thematic meanings. Connotative meaning can vary between cultures and individuals and is more unstable than conceptual meaning. Social meaning conveys information about language usage contexts. Affective meaning shows attitude and evaluation. Reflective meaning arises from multiple conceptual meanings. Collocative meaning comes from words that commonly occur together. Thematic meaning is based on how the speaker organizes their message.
Contrastive analysis (ca) by structuralistareejsalem6
Contrastive analysis compares the linguistic structures of two languages to determine their similarities and differences. The contrastive analysis hypothesis states that similarities between languages will be easy for learners, while differences may cause difficulties. It predicts learners will transfer habits from their native language, do well on similar structures but struggle with different ones. For example, Arabic learners of English may have trouble with the SVO word order in English since Arabic is VSO. The hierarchy of difficulty identifies where learners are expected to make errors to help target instruction. However, some studies found learners did not always struggle most with structures differing most from their first language. While the audiolingual method aimed to establish good habits through repetition, contrastive analysis has
Halliday's Ch 6 Summary (Below the Clause Level: Groups and Phrases)Sawsan Ali
This document discusses the experiential and logical structure of nominal groups in clauses. It defines key terms like deictic, numerative, epithet, classifier, and qualifier that describe the types and functions of premodifiers and postmodifiers in a nominal group's experiential structure. It also examines the logical structure and hypotactic relations between elements in a nominal group, with the head being modified in a univariate structure. The functions and ranking of elements in a nominal group are important for understanding its meaning and role in a clause.
The document discusses the critical period hypothesis in second language acquisition. The critical period hypothesis proposes that there is an ideal time period in a person's life for acquiring language skills, and that after a certain age it becomes much more difficult to acquire a new language. The document outlines the historical background of the hypothesis, provides examples of studies that both support and contradict it, and discusses ongoing debates around its claims. It ultimately concludes that while early language acquisition may confer some advantages, there is not enough evidence currently to say whether there truly is a critical period for second language learning.
This document outlines the methodology for an English for Specific Purposes course. It begins with an introduction to methodology and basic principles of language learning, including that it is developmental, active, decision-making, and emotional. It then provides examples of techniques like gaps, variety, prediction, and involvement. A model lesson is described that uses a hotel management case study and group work. Finally, it discusses language learning tasks like role plays, simulations, case studies and projects to integrate skills and encourage creativity.
Second Language Acquisition (Error Analysis)Emeral Djunas
This document discusses error analysis in second language acquisition. It defines error as evidence of a lack of learning, and distinguishes errors from mistakes which are accidental. Error analysis emerged to address limitations of contrastive analysis, finding that errors also result from the complexities of the second language itself, known as intralingual errors. These can be classified by type, language competency, language level, and gravity. Error analysis follows steps of collecting language samples, identifying errors, describing and classifying them, and explaining errors. It informs teaching by showing learning occurs through errors, and helps teachers understand student learning. However, error analysis also has weaknesses like insufficient attention to factors influencing errors.
Sociolinguistics and Language TeachingSheng Nuesca
Language teaching is connected with sociolinguistics in many ways. Different social factors affect language teaching and language learning.
Social factors such as situation, context, and social setting that has roles in language teaching. It describes the main factors which influence linguistic choices and explains how well contemporary teaching can take account of them.
The document discusses politeness and defines it as actions taken to counteract face-threatening acts. It summarizes Brown and Levinson's politeness theory, which is based on the concept of "face" or social identity. The theory outlines two types of face - negative and positive - and describes four politeness strategies - bald on-record, positive politeness, negative politeness, and off-record language. It also discusses Accommodation Theory and how convergence and divergence relate to social differences. Finally, it notes some gender differences in how politeness is expressed.
This document discusses componential analysis and semantic decomposition. Componential analysis involves analyzing linguistic items like word meanings into combinations of defining features that can be used to compare each item. Semantic decomposition believes that word meanings can be built up from simpler words, such as defining "stallion" as a combination of "horse" and "male". Examples are provided for both componential analysis and semantic decomposition.
1. The document discusses anxiety as an individual difference that can impact second language acquisition. It reviews research showing anxiety can be trait-based, state-based, or situation-specific.
2. Instruments like the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale have been used to measure language anxiety and correlate it with language performance. Studies found low-anxiety learners tend to perform better.
3. Factors like poor performance, negative expectations, and communication apprehension can increase language anxiety over time for learners. The relationship between anxiety and other individual differences like intelligence is also discussed.
Tiga instruktur klub bahasa Inggris membahas peningkatan kualitas klub mereka. Mereka sepakat perlu meningkatkan kurikulum agar lebih relevan dengan bahasa Inggris serta memperhatikan kebutuhan siswa yang beragam.
Discourse communities are groups of people who share activities and spend substantial time together. They may be tightly knit speech communities or looser networks. Factors like social class, networks, education, and background influence language use. Gender is a social category that is one part of identity, while sex refers to biological attributes. Discourse and sexuality add the dimension of personal desire. Social variables and identities intersect with language use, as the way people speak is influenced by their group memberships and position in society.
Can bilingualism cause problems for children? Which language should parents speak? Should parents avoid mixing languages? This slideshare accompanies a RALLI film by Dr Vicky Murphy providing some basic information about bilingualism based on the research evidence. http://youtu.be/p9iWG0M5z40
For an index of the RALLI films and slides see: http://ralliindex.blogspot.co.uk
This document discusses Case Theory and Binding Theory within the framework of Government and Binding Theory. It provides three key points:
1. Case Theory explains how case is assigned in sentences, distinguishing between structural case assigned by verbs and prepositions, and inherent case assigned to specific arguments. Principles of Case Theory like the Case Filter ensure DPs receive case.
2. Binding Theory defines the distribution of anaphors, pronouns, and R-expressions based on their binding properties and principles of locality. It interacts with movement and empty categories left by movement.
3. Together, Case Theory and Binding Theory are part of the overall GB model and operate at a representational level beyond D-structure and S
The document discusses various linguistic aspects of verbs and predicates, including:
1. Generic vs. specific predications and how they express regularities vs. instances.
2. Stative vs. dynamic predicates, with examples of sentences containing stative (e.g. "we waited") vs. dynamic (e.g. "something moved") predicates.
3. Durative vs. punctual aspects, how they describe events over time (e.g. "they were sitting") vs. a single point in time (e.g. "they sat down").
4. Telic vs. atelic predicates, where telic predicates have inherent endpoints or goals (e.g.
This document provides an outline of Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST). It begins by defining RST as a theory of text organization that analyzes how parts of a text relate to each other functionally. The document then discusses key aspects of RST, including its principles, relation types (subject matter and presentational), graphical representations, and how to perform an RST analysis. It provides examples to illustrate various relation types like circumstance, motivation, and evidence. The document concludes by noting some issues with RST and implications for its applications in areas like writing research and natural language generation.
This document discusses language imperialism and the spread of the English language. It defines language imperialism as the imposition of one language onto others. It notes that Robert Phillipson wrote about linguistic imperialism in 1992. It discusses Phillipson's theory that organizations like the British Council and World Bank have historically promoted the continued dominance of English globally through intrinsic, extrinsic, and functional arguments. These arguments portray English positively and other languages negatively, emphasize how established English is, and stress English's influence and role in modernity.
This document discusses the linguistic concepts of dialect, register, and style. It defines register as varieties of language defined by their social use, such as the registers of scientific or religious language. Dialect refers to varieties according to the user. The document explores the relationships and overlaps between these concepts. It examines factors that influence register, such as formality, topic, and social roles. Models of analyzing registers along dimensions like field, mode, and tenor are discussed. The principles of stylistic variation and how style relates to formality are also summarized.
This document outlines the process and purpose of conducting a needs analysis for language learners. It discusses defining needs, the various focuses of needs analysis including target needs, learning needs, objective needs, and subjective needs. It provides examples of tools that can be used for needs analysis like questionnaires, interviews, observations. It also discusses evaluating needs analysis in terms of reliability, validity and practicality. Finally, it discusses some issues in needs analysis like determining common vs specialized language needs, and whether needs analysis can ever be truly objective.
This document discusses various types of meanings that words can have, including denotation, connotation, primary meaning, secondary meaning, literal meaning, and figurative meaning. It provides definitions and examples of each. Specifically, it defines denotation as the core meaning found in a dictionary, while connotation refers to additional meanings and associations beyond the denotative meaning. Primary meaning is the first meaning that comes to mind for a word, while secondary meanings are more context-dependent. Literal meaning is the basic or usual meaning, whereas figurative meaning uses words in a non-literal way like in metaphors or similes.
The document discusses different types of meaning in language as classified by linguist G. Leech. It describes conceptual meaning as the essential, logical meaning of language. Associative meaning includes connotative meaning, which is the additional implied meaning beyond conceptual content, as well as social, affective, reflective, collocative, and thematic meanings. Connotative meaning can vary between cultures and individuals and is more unstable than conceptual meaning. Social meaning conveys information about language usage contexts. Affective meaning shows attitude and evaluation. Reflective meaning arises from multiple conceptual meanings. Collocative meaning comes from words that commonly occur together. Thematic meaning is based on how the speaker organizes their message.
Semantic roles and semantic features help analyze the meaning and relationships conveyed in language. Semantic roles describe the relationship between constituents of an utterance and their meaning, identifying who did what to whom. Key roles include Agent, Patient, Instrument, and Experiencer. Semantic feature analysis decomposes words into bundles of attributes that are necessary to perform certain actions. Together, semantic roles and features provide a framework for understanding language semantics.
This document discusses semantics, or the meaning of language. It covers lexical semantics including word meanings and relationships like synonyms, antonyms, and polysemy. It also discusses sentential semantics and how meaning is constructed from larger syntactic units. Conceptual and associative meanings are described. Lexical relations like hyponymy and homophony are explained. The document concludes by discussing semantic features, roles, and references used in semantic analysis.
This document discusses the seven types of meaning:
1. Conceptual or denotative meaning refers to the basic dictionary definition.
2. Connotative meaning includes attributes and associations beyond the literal meaning.
3. Social meaning conveys information about the social context and characteristics of the speaker.
4. Affective or emotive meaning refers to the feelings and attitudes expressed by the speaker.
5. Reflected meaning arises when a word has multiple meanings that influence one another.
6. Collocative meaning refers to associations based on habitual co-occurrence with other words.
7. Thematic meaning is communicated through how the message is organized and what is emphasized.
Seven Arguments for Semantic TechnologiesMike Bergman
This document outlines 7 arguments for semantic technologies. It discusses how semantic technologies can improve findability by unifying different types of data and search methods. It also allows for relationships between data to provide context. Semantic technologies enable more capabilities for information architecture by allowing data to be more interoperable, annotated, and computable. They also allow knowledge to be represented and organized as a knowledge graph. Semantic technologies shift more control to business users by separating content from applications and allowing users to model information. They also enable more adaptive and robust data structures and reduce costs compared to traditional systems.
This document provides an overview of the course "English Semantics" which includes two tests worth 25% each and a final assignment worth 50%. It covers topics such as word meaning, including semantic features, componential analysis, and semantic fields. It also discusses sentence meaning, including proposition, paraphrase, and entailment. Finally, it examines utterance meaning, including presupposition, conversational implicature, and speech acts.
This document provides an overview of lexicology, which is the study of words. It defines lexicology and discusses its objectives, which include understanding the meaning of words, how words are classified into groups, and the morphological and derivational structure of words. It also covers key topics in lexicology such as the main types of lexical units (morphemes, words, set expressions), semantic change over time, and relationships between words like synonyms, antonyms, and lexical fields. The objectives of lexicology are described as understanding word meaning, principles of vocabulary classification, systematic description of vocabulary development, and morphological/derivational word structure.
Hi Guys.. This is the best presentation on Text Linguistics... I have spend 9 hours with my friend Aitsam Haider to make it excellent for all of us. Insha Allah after reading it your concept about linguistics will be quit Clear....
A Try For Best material on Text Linguistics from The Students of Institute of Southern Punjab Multan M.A English 3rd semester...
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The document provides an overview of discourse analysis, including its origin, importance, differences between text and discourse, linguistic functions, cohesive devices, interpersonal functions, conventions of conversations, cooperative principle, and background knowledge. It discusses how discourse analysis was first employed by Zelling Harris and defines discourse analysis as the study of how stretches of language used in communication assume meaning, purpose and unity for their users.
The document provides an overview of discourse analysis, including its origin, importance, differences between text and discourse, linguistic functions, cohesive devices, interpersonal functions, conventions of conversations, cooperative principle, and background knowledge. It discusses how discourse analysis was first introduced by Zelling Harris and defines it as the study of how stretches of language assume meaning and purpose. The document also distinguishes between the textual and interpersonal functions of language.
Copy Of Discourse Analysis Presented To Miss RabiaDr. Cupid Lucid
This document provides an overview of discourse analysis, including its origin, importance, and key concepts. It discusses how discourse analysis focuses on language use beyond the sentence level and how it examines both interpersonal and textual linguistic functions. Key aspects covered include the difference between text and discourse, coherence and cohesion, conversational interactions, and the cooperative principle underlying most conversations.
This document provides an overview of discourse analysis, including its origins, importance, and key concepts. It discusses how discourse analysis focuses on language use beyond the sentence level and how it examines both interpersonal and textual linguistic functions. Key aspects covered include the difference between text and discourse, coherence and cohesion, conversational interactions, and the cooperative principle underlying most conversations.
This document provides an overview of discourse analysis, including its origins, importance, and key concepts. It discusses how discourse analysis focuses on language use beyond the sentence level and how it examines both interpersonal and textual linguistic functions. Key aspects covered include the difference between text and discourse, coherence and cohesion, conversational interactions, and the cooperative principle underlying most conversations.
Copy Of Discourse Analysis Presented To Miss RabiaDr. Cupid Lucid
This document provides an overview of discourse analysis, including its origins, importance, and key concepts. It discusses how discourse analysis focuses on language use beyond the sentence level and how it examines both interpersonal and textual linguistic functions. Key aspects covered include the difference between text and discourse, coherence and cohesion, conversational interactions, and the cooperative principle underlying most conversations.
This document discusses various concepts related to communication, language, and meaning. It defines semantics as the study of meaning and distinguishes between three subfields: lexical semantics, grammatical semantics, and logical semantics. It also discusses different units of analysis including words, utterances, sentences, and propositions. Finally, it outlines different dimensions of meaning such as reference versus sense, denotation versus reference, descriptive versus non-descriptive meaning, and literal versus non-literal meaning. Contextual meaning is also discussed as important for disambiguation.
This document discusses definitions and types of meaning. It outlines five types of definitions: lexical, stipulative, precising, persuasive, and theoretical. It also discusses the purposes of definitions as showing relationships, removing ambiguity, reducing vagueness, increasing vocabulary, explaining concepts theoretically, and influencing attitudes. Techniques for defining terms include defining by example, ostensive definitions, quasi-ostensive definitions, definitions by genus and difference, and synonymous definitions. The document also outlines seven kinds of meaning: conceptual, connotative, social, affective, reflected, thematic, and collocative meaning.
Cohesion and coherence are essential properties of written texts that aid readability and communication of ideas. Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical links between elements of a text, while coherence is the semantic unity between ideas. Some techniques that create cohesion and coherence include reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctions, and lexical repetition. Together, cohesion and coherence allow readers to understand a text as a unified whole rather than a disjointed set of sentences.
The document discusses a computer-assisted teaching method for teaching types of nouns and their functions to junior high school students. It begins by providing background on the importance of language and communication. It then describes the research problem, scope, and methodology. It defines and provides examples of 7 types of nouns: common, proper, collective, abstract, compound, count, and mass. It discusses 9 functions of nouns: subject, direct object, indirect object, object of preposition, predicate noun, appositive noun, possessive modifier, adjective, and adverb. Finally, it describes the computer tutorial program used, which presents materials and exercises across 5 units, with pop-up explanations and a non-sequential design allowing student choice
This document presents a semantic theory of word classes based on conceptual spaces. It argues that word classes can be given a cognitive grounding using this framework. Specifically:
- Nouns typically refer to concepts represented in multiple domains, capturing information about an object's color, shape, texture, etc. Nouns represent object categories.
- Adjectives typically refer to a single domain and represent properties like color or size. They denote convex regions within a domain.
- The theory aims to develop semantic models constructed from general cognitive mechanisms, not dependent on syntactic categories. It uses conceptual spaces to provide a cognitive analysis of the major word classes.
This document provides an overview of the different levels of linguistic analysis, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, lexicon, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and discourse.
It defines each level and discusses their basic units and organizing structures. For example, it states that syntax analyzes sentence structure and has phrases as its basic units, organized by syntactic operations. Semantics examines meaning within language and has no set units, but aspects like denotation and reference. Pragmatics studies meaning beyond language to speech acts, using components like implicatures.
The document also gives examples to illustrate each level, such as speech acts for pragmatics, and deixis, politeness, and enunciation for
The document discusses the concept of cohesion in English. It defines cohesion as the semantic relations between elements in a text that give the text unity and allow it to be interpreted as a whole. It outlines the major types of cohesive devices, including reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. It also discusses the role of cohesion in forming texture and structure in a text.
This document defines and provides examples of adjectives and adverbs. It explains that adjectives describe nouns and do not change form based on the noun. There are different types of adjectives including qualitative, interrogative, numeric, and possessive. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, prepositions or entire sentences. There are three types of adverbs - adjuncts, disjuncts, and conjuncts. Adjuncts provide optional or secondary information to a sentence, while disjuncts express the speaker's attitude and conjuncts introduce a new sentence and link it to the previous. The document provides examples of each.
Logic is the study of correct reasoning and principles of arguments. It is both a science and an art. Studying logic helps improve critical thinking and problem solving. Language is important for communication and uses logic for reasoning and analyzing arguments. Terms are words that convey ideas and are basic components of statements. Definitions explain the meaning of terms. Judgments are mental statements that can be true or false, while propositions verbally express judgments and sentences are groups of words that express a thought.
Similar to The Analysis of Types Meaning of Adjective-KARYA ILMIAH SEMANTIC (20)
The Analysis of Types Meaning of Adjective-KARYA ILMIAH SEMANTIC
1. CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and Problems
Language as a means of communication associated with a set of signs and
a message or meaning. Meaning seems at once the most obvious feature of language
and the most obscure aspect to study. It obvious because it is what we use language
for to communicate with each other, to convey ‘what we mean effectively’. The study
of meaning is concerned with manipulation of language, mostly could misunderstand.
A word cannot stand by itself because it does not have meaning. A word
can have meaning when it entries a sentence or a clause. The meaning is appeared
and influenced by its context. The meaning of a word does not seem to be stable but
depends upon speakers, hearers, and context.
Adjective may have more than one meaning depends on the context.
That’s the reason why we need to make clarification between what would seem to be
real or usual meaning and the other meaning that it has certain circumstance.
According to Lyon, a useful distinction had been made that allow us to say one thing
and mean in terms of sentences meaning which includes all secondary aspect of
meaning especially relation to the context.
Based on the description above the problem of the essay are :
1. How to identify the types meaning of adjective?
2. 2. What are the types meaning that are found in Penguin 60s Classic
‘Beowulf and Grendel’
1.2 Aims
The essay has main aim to fulfill the requirement of Matriculation
assignment in Translation Studies. It also aims to study that used in data source and to
find out the message that is conveyed by the author to the reader through adjective.
The theoretical aims are to find out and to identify types meaning on adjective and to
analyze types of meaning that appear in the story.
1.3 Scope of Discussion
The discussion of the essay concentrate on adjective that found in Penguin
Classics ‘Beowulf and Grendel’ and its relations to seven types meaning of adjectives
that proposed by Leech.
The adjectives as data that will be discussed are the adjectives as
attributive in a phrase and adjective as compliment in a sentence. In this essay the
discussion of adjective is related to the seven types of meaning. The seven types of
meaning consist of :
- conceptual meaning
- connotative meaning
- social meaning
- affected meaning
- reflected meaning
3. - collocative meaning
- thematic meaning
1.4 Theoretical Framework
The analysis of the data in this essay will be based on the semantic theory
of meaning. Meaning is an ambiguous and most controversial term in theory of
language. Meaning of word is influenced by its context. That is why one word may
have more than one meaning as Leech proposed seven types meaning of adjectives.
Adjective is one of the word classes that can function to describe thing.
Adjective can be used as a modifier of a noun and as a compliment of linking word.
1.5 Methodology
Methodology basically covers the description of data source, data
collection and data analysis as well as drawing conclusion. The essay uses
methodology includes the following aspects:
1.5.1 Data Source
In this essay, the adjectives as data were taken from the Penguin Classics
‘Beowulf and Grendel’
1.5.2 Data Collection
The method use in collecting the data was library research. This method
used to get information or to get written data that relevant to the topic. The data was
4. collected through reading and note taking from the data source. Then the collected
data was analyzed in accordance with the seven types of meaning.
1.5.3 Data Analysis
The data was analyzed by qualitative method. The method used informal
technique and inductive-deductive approach to explain the characteristic of data.
Then the data was analyzed in accordance with the theory in theoretical framework.
Every adjective was analyzed to find out kinds of meaning that was implied in one
adjective.
5. CHAPTER II
THE THEORETICAL REFERENCES OF ADJECTIVE AND MEANING
2.1 Adjective
At general level, adjective is applied to a grammatically distinct word
class in language having the following properties :
- it contains among its most, central members the morphologically
simplest words denoting properties or states: among the most
frequent and salient are those relating to size, shape colour, age,
evaluation, and the like.
- its members are characteristically used either predicatively or
attributively as modifier within NP structure.
- It is the class or one of the classes, to which the inflectional
category of grade applies most characteristically in languages
having this category. (Adjectives often carry often carry such other
inflections as case, gender, number, but secondarily by agreement).
2.1.1 Adjective Phrase
An adjective has a function to describe thing (Wierzbicka, 1996 : 468) has
primarily an attributive role.
e.g. - a beautiful picture
- beautiful modify picture
6. The adjective also can be used predicatively.
e.g. Those pictures are beautiful.
An adjective phrase consists of an adjective as head, alone or
accompanied by one or more dependents. The dependents good deals less varied and
complex than in VP or NP structure can gain be divided into complements and
modifier.
2.1.2 Structure of Adjective
Adjectives are used in two main structures (Collins, 1990 : 63) as follows:
1. One of two main structures involves adjective modifying a noun group and it
is called an attributive adjective.
e.g. - She had a beautiful face.
The word beautiful is an adjective, which modifies face.
- a big house.
The word big is an adjective, which modifies house.
2. The other main structure involves an adjective being used as a complement
after a link verb. Placing an adjective after link verb results in a predicative
adjective.
e.g. - The ceilings were white
- The ideas are new
White and new are adjectives that have position link verb.
2.1.3 Types of Adjective
There are types of adjectives (Collins, 1990), such as:
7. 1. Quality adjective
There is a large group of adjectives that identify qualities that someone or
something has.
e.g. - cold water
- a bad life
2. Classifying adjective
There is another a large group of adjectives, which identify someone or
something as a member of class.
e.g. - true answer
- financial help
3. Colour adjective
There is a small group of adjective that identifies the colour of something.
e.g. - a dark blue hat
- a bright blue sky
4. Emphasizing adjective
There is another small group of adjectives that are used to emphasize the
feeling about the person or thing that you talking about.
e.g. - an exact reason
- a complete idiot
2.1.4. Comparative Adjective
In describing thing, we can describe something by saying that it has more
of a quality than something else. It does this by using comparative adjective.
8. Comparative normally consists of the basic form of the adjective with either ‘er’
added to the end or ‘more’ placed in front of the adjective. (Collins, 1990 : 85).
e.g. small - smaller
long - longer
reasonable - most reasonable
2.1.5 Superlative Adjective
Superlative normally consist of either “est” added to the end of an
adjective and “the” placed in front of it, or “most” placed in front of the adjective
(Collins, 1990 : 87).
e.g. small - smallest
long - longest
reasonable - most reasonable
2.1.6 -ing Form Adjective
There is large number of adjectives ending in ‘-ing’. Most of them are related
in form to the present participles of verbs. They called ‘-ing’ adjective.
e.g. - She was amiable amusing girl.
- He had been up all night attending a dying man.
Adjectives with ending ‘-ing’ are sometimes called participle adjectives.
2.1.7 -ed Form Adjective
A large number of adjectives end in ‘ed’. Many of them have the same form
as the past participle of a verb. Ending ‘ed’ to a noun forms others. Others are not
closely related to any other words.
9. e.g. - a talented child
Adjectives with the same form as irregular past participle which do not end in
‘-ed’ are also included here as ‘ed’ adjectives.
e.g. - a broken wing
The past participle of some phrasal verb can also be used as adjectives. When
they are used attributively, two parts of the phrasal verbs are usually written with a
hyphen between them.
e.g. -…the built-up urban mass of the city
2.2 Definition of Meaning
The word ‘meaning’ and its corresponding verb “to mean” are among the
most eminently discussable terms in the English language. Ogden and Richard (in
Leech, 1983 : 1) stated that there are twenty-two definitions of the meaning.
Among them are:
- an intrinsic property
- the other words annexed to a word in the dictionary
- the connotation of the word
- the place of anything in a system the practical consequences of
thing in our future experience
- that to which the user of a symbol actually refers
- that to which the user of a symbol ought to be referring
- that to which the user of a symbol believes himself to be referring
10. - that to which the interpreter of a symbol:
a. refers
b. believes himself to be referring
c. believes the user to be referring
By presenting this list, Odgen and Richard tried to show how confusion and
misunderstanding come about because of lack of agreement about such basic terms of
meaning.
2.3 Concept Meaning
According to Odgen and Richard, meaning is one of the most ambiguous
terms in the theory of language. They have many different terms in meaning.
However they offered the popular concept of meaning, which is called the basic
triangle of Ogden and Richard.
The diagram of the concept is:
Thought or reference
Symbol Referent
11. The essential feature of this diagram is that is distinguishes between three
components of meaning. There is not direct relation between word (symbol) and the
thing (referent) they stand for. The word symbolized the thought or referent that in its
turn refers to the feature or event we are talking about. Thought or reference caused
the referent and symbol not to have direct relation. Thought or reference consists of
many social aspects that cause the referent to be different. So that, the thought or
reference causes the meaning of a word not to be always the same.
2.4 Context as Meaning
Context influences any kind of communication. The context contains specific
information about the utterances. The context of utterances is a situation about the
utterances that is formed from the occurrences of activity, setting, and relation
(Larson, 1984).
a. Setting covers:
- material element around verbal interaction
- place or location of verbal interaction
- time
b. Activity refers to all behaviors performance of the speaker and listener,
indeed, the verbal interaction itself.
c. Relation is a relationship between speaker and listener. It covers:
- age
- sex
12. - position: status, role, and prestige
- family relationship
- office relationship
2.5 Seven Types of Meaning
It is natural that studies of meaning should have devoted much attention to
relation between meaning, attention and interpretation. The important point is that
meaning, for semantic, is natural between speaker’s meaning and hearer’s meaning
(Leech, 1983 : 53).
Seven types of meaning theory offered by Leech divided the meaning into
seven types. It gives primary importance to logical meaning of conceptual meaning
because it is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic communication. It is
the essential functioning of language. The seven types of meaning as follows:
a. Conceptual meaning
Conceptual meaning means a universal feature that a word possesses in our
mind as a concept (Leech, 1983 : 10). For example: the word woman has features
as +human, +female, and +adult. Conceptual meaning is also called denotative
meaning. Denotation indicates the class of person, thing, etc, generally
represented by expression. Denotative meaning involves the relationship between
a linguistic unit, especially a lexical item, and the non-linguistic entities, which it
refers. It is equivalent to referential meaning.
13. b. Connotative meaning
Connotative meaning is an additional feature of a word, which varies from age
to age, from society to society, according to culture, historical period, and the
experience of the individual (Leech, 1983 : 12). It is the communicative value an
expression has by its virtue of what refers to, over and above its purely conceptual
content.
The connotation is the meaning of the words, which show instability in the
presence supplementary values. (Mill, in Lyons, 1997 : 23). For example: the
word baby. In western culture, the word baby also has connotation meaning as
someone who is loved. Connotation also refers to emotional associations,
personal or communal, which are suggested by part of meaning, linguistic unit,
especially lexical items (Crystal, 1985 : 66).
c. Social meaning
Social meaning is piece of language which conveys the social circumstances
of its use or in which the utterances takes place. Social meaning refers to the same
thing they are used in different social circumstances. (Leech, 1983 : 13). The use
of social circumstances in the social meaning varies according to:
1. Dialect, which refers to the language of geographical region or social class.
2. Time, which refers to the language of a time,
e.g. the language of nineteenth century.
3. Province, which refers to the language of law, ancient, advertising, etc.
14. 4. Status, which refers to the use of language whether its polite, colloquial, or
slang language.
5. Modality, which refers to the use of language of memoranda, lectures, joke,
etc.
6. Singularity, which refers to the use of language according to the style of an
individual, i.e. the style of Hemingway, Austeen, etc.
d. Affective meaning
Affective meaning is a meaning that is conveyed implicitly reflecting the
personal feeling of the speaker including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude
to something he is talking about. For example: ‘Be quiet, please!’ and ‘shut up’
are two expressions, which are intended to ask someone to be quiet but each of
them implicitly reflects different feeling of the speaker. The first utterance reflects
the speaker’s politeness in asking the listener to be quiet while the second
utterance show the speaker’s anger (Leech, 1983 : 14)
e. Reflected meaning
Reflected meaning arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, one sense
of a word forms part of our response to another. It is the case where reflected
meaning intrudes through the sheer of strength of emotive suggestion and is
illustrated by word that has different meaning (Leech, 1983 : 14).
Word in certain society that has religious connotation is considered profane if
outside formal or religious ceremonies.
For example: - the word damn becomes darn.
15. f. Collocative meaning
Collocative meaning consists of the associations of a word acquires on
account of the meanings of a word which tend to occur in its environment. The
word pretty and handsome share common ground in the meaning of good looking
but may have different attractiveness according to its collocation (Leech, 1983 :
14)
girl boy
boy man
woman car
Pretty flower Handsome vessel
garden typewriter
etc etc
Collocative meaning supplies an idiosyncratic property of an individual word.
g. Thematic meaning
Thematic meaning is what speaker’s communicated by different ways
especially in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis (Leech, 1983 : 13).
In active sentence such as Joe drank a cup of tea, the speaker actually
communicates more about the agent. While in the passive sentence, A cup of tea
was drunk by Joe, the speaker talks about the object.
16. CHAPTER III
THE ANALYSIS OF TYPES MEANINGS OF ADJECTIVES
3.1 The Analysis of Types Meaning of Adjectives in “Beowulf and Grendel”
In this essay, the analysis is about adjective that is found in Penguin 60s Classic
“Beowulf and Grendel”. The analysis of the data based on theory of seven types of
meaning (Leech, 1983 : 9) that consists of conceptual meaning, connotative meaning,
social meaning, affected meaning, reflected meaning, and thematic meaning.
In this analysis, one adjective may have some types of meaning because the
relation of the context of sentence suitable to characteristic of some types of meaning.
However, certain types of meaning cannot be found in an adjective because its
context is not sufficient for the meaning. It also caused by the adjective is a neutral
adjective. Neutral adjective means that the adjective is commonly used and it does
not have any characteristics that make it to be special in use. The analysis of adjective
is explained below:
3.1.1 Good
In the sentence ‘He was a good king! (page 1), good has meanings:
- Conceptual meaning
Good has the concepts: +giving satisfaction, -bad.
- Connotative meaning
The adjective good in the example above describes the character of the king.
17. This adjective conveys meaning that ‘he has moral excellence and positive
manner’.
- Affected meaning
Good refers to the condition of person who having or arising from a desire
to promote the welfare or happiness of other. In the sentence above, the
speaker used the expression of good because the person addresses seem has
reasonable behavior. This adjective shows how great he is as royal atheling
earned glory for his people welfare.
- Collocative meaning
The adjective good refers to desirable and positive manner and also
deserving of esteem and respect. Through adjective good, the writer tries to
show the reader that the character deserves a respect from his people, and
they all obey and give them tribute. So, it gives the formal circumstances to
the reader by using the adjective good.
- Thematic meaning
In the sentence above, the adjective good that describes king is given
emphasis by the writer and then, it read with stress. In this case, the writer
wants to illustrate the character that is a king through the phrase good king.
3.1.2 Young
In the sentence ‘a young child in hall-yard, a hope for the people’. (page 1).
Young has meanings:
- Conceptual meaning
18. Young has the concepts: +growth, development, -old.
- Connotative meaning
In the example above, the character is described as a child who just grows
up in the hall-yard.
3.1.3 Black
In the sentence ‘in the black night, he camped in the hall’. (page 8), black has
meanings:
- Conceptual meaning
Black has the concepts: -light, +dark.
- Connotative meaning
The adjective black in the example above refers to silent situation that faced
by the character.
- Collocative meaning
The adjective black collocates with unpleasant objects, like cloth. Through
the adjective black, the writer tries to emphasize night as dibble condition,
which is faced by the character at that time.
3.1.4 Late
In the sentence ‘When late was born to him the Lord Healfdane, lifelong the
ruler’. (page 3), late has meanings:
- Conceptual meaning
Late has the concept: +after the expected time, -early.
- Connotative meaning
19. The adjective late that is chosen by the writer give the impression that the
character comes close to an old age.
- Social meaning
The formal circumstance appears in adjective late. The adjective late in the
sentence above is euphemism word. The writer used this adjective to avoid
an offensive or unpleasant situation.
3.1.5 Silent
In the sentence ‘Lord Hrothgar sat silent then, the strong man mourned,
glorious king, he grieved for his thanes as they read the traces of a terrible
foe, a cursed fiend. That was too cruel a feud, too long, too hard! (page 6)
Silent has meanings:
- Conceptual meaning
Silent has the concepts: +little sound, -noise.
- Connotative meaning
The connotation of silent in the example above is unfavorable. It gives the
impression of uninteresting feeling of the character.
- Affected meaning
In describing sat, the adjective silent is used by the writer because the
character says nothing when he did the act.
- Thematic meaning
In the sentence above, the writer emphasizes the word silent to describe the
condition of the character in bed situation, or unwanted situation. The
20. expression reflects the feeling of the character at that time. In this case, the
writer wants to show the readers how the character is in that circumstance.
3.1.6 Strong
Strong has meanings:
- Conceptual meaning
Strong has the concepts: +having power to resist, -weak.
- Collocative meaning
In the example above, the adjective strong is associated with man who has
great power in his life.
3.1.7 Long
Long has meaning:
- Conceptual meaning
Long has the concepts: +from the end measuring more than average, -short.
3.1.8 Hard
Hard has meanings:
- Conceptual meaning
Hard has the concepts: +great energy, +solid, -soft.
- Connotative meaning
The adjective hard has connotation such as: causing unhappiness,
discomfort or pain, difficult to endure.
21. - Affected meaning
Through the adjective hard, the writer tries to explain unfavorable, hot
situation, which is faced by the character. However, he feels hard because he
feel uneasy with the situation.
- Thematic meaning
In the sentence above, the adjective hard is given emphasize by the writer
and then it is read with stress. In this case, the writer wants to illustrate the
harsh situation, which couldn’t avoid by the character.
3.1.9 Old
In the sentence ‘My noble father was known as Edgetheow, who had seen
many season when he set out at last. An old man from the halls’. (page 13),
old has meanings:
- Conceptual meaning
Old has the concepts: +having lived long, -young.
- Connotative meaning
Connotation of the adjective old in the example above is that the man has
favorable personality.
- Collocative meaning
Through the adjective old, which describe the man, the writer tries to show
the character personality who had receive great and many experience in his
life.
22. 3.1.10 Bitter
In the sentence, ‘Again and again the enemy of man stalking unseen, struck
terrible and bitter blows’. (page 8), bitter has meanings:
- Conceptual meaning
Bitter has the concepts: +tasting like unsweetened coffee, -sweet.
- Connotative meaning
In the example above, the adjective bitter has connotation such as: hardship,
envy, hate, difficult, wretched.
- Affected meaning
The use of bitter that describes blows, suggest the emotive feeling of the
writer. Through the adjective bitter, the writer expresses how hard, and full
of hate the enemy is.
3.1.11 Wrong
In the sentence ‘The harms he did him through the years of wrong, outrage,
and persecution’. (page 7), wrong has meanings:
- Conceptual meaning
Wrong has the concepts: +false, -right.
- Connotative meaning
The adjective wrong that describes the years in the sentence above has
negative connotation. It connotes with mistaken and improper.
23. - Affected meaning
The use of wrong impresses that the character is in bad situation and the
writer explained that the character put the other in unjust situation, like
outrage and persecution.
3.1.12 Fine
In the sentence ‘He’s hall-fellow dressed in fine Armour’. (page 12), fine has
meanings:
- Conceptual meaning
Fine has concepts: +well, +clear, bright, -sick.
- Connotative meaning
The word fine implies pleasant sensation in its connotation. In the example
above, fine refers to a feeling of suitable in using something, i.e. armour.
- Collocative meaning
The adjective fine usually collocates with unpleasant objects, like weather,
healthy. In the example above, fine also refers to the condition of the
character that very enjoyable at that time.
24. CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSION
From the analysis in the previous chapter, the meaning of adjective can be
identified by connecting the context of the sentence to the characteristic of type of
meaning. So, by recognizing the context of the sentence and matches the context with
the suitable characteristic of meaning, the types of meaning of the adjective can
identify briefly.
The types of meaning found in data source, ‘Beowulf and Grendel’ include
conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affected meaning,
collocative meaning and thematic meaning. Some adjectives may have more types of
meaning, which are easily distinguishable than the other adjectives because they may
have neutral meaning in terms of types of meaning.
The use of adjective has a purpose in describing feeling, thought,
circumstances and objects either living objects or non-living objects. The concept of
the adjective as its conceptual meaning disassociated from the context. The
connotative meaning of adjective found in the use of adjective, which indirectly
suggest feeling and situation either happy or uncomfortable. The feature of adjective
included into social meaning. The use of adjective is influenced by the attitude or
feeling of speaker toward the situation either satisfied, uneasy, etc. Reflected meaning
cannot be found in the analysis because the contexts of all adjectives do not show up
the reflected meaning. Some adjectives collocate with object have certain
26. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alexander, Michael. 1973. Penguin 60s Classics Beowulf and Grendel. London :
England.
Collins, William. 1990. English Grammar. Great Britain : Richard Clay Ltd.
Echols, John M. 1992. An Indonesian English Dictionary. Jakarta : Gramedia.
Hornby, A.S. 1974. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. Great
Britain : Oxford University Press.
Lawrence, Michael. 2000. The Complete Idiom Dictionary. Bandung : PT Genesindo.
Leech, Geoffrey. 1983. Semantic, The Study of Meaning. London : Richard Clay Ltd.
Quirk, R and Greenbaum. 1976. A University Grammar Of English. Hongkong :
Macmilan.
Wierzbicka, Anna. 1996. Semantic Primes and Universal. Oxford : Oxford
University Press.
27. ABSTRAK
Makalah ini berjudul The Analysis of Types Meaning of Adjective in Penguin
60s Classics ‘Beouwulf and Grendel’. Adapun tujuan penulisan karya ilmiah adalah
untuk mengidentifikasi dan menganalisis tipe-tipe makna dari adjektiva yang terdapat
dalam Penguin 60s Classics ‘Beouwulf and Grendel. Semua data diperoleh dari seri
Penguin 60s Classics ‘Beouwulf and Grendel’. Data-data tersebut dikaji dengan
metode kepustakaan, serta menggunakan teknik membaca dan mencatat. Kemudian
data-data yang terkumpul dianalisis sesuai dengan tujuh tipe makna. Dalam
menjelaskan tipe-tipe makna, penelitian ini mengambil referensi teori makna milik
Leech. Berdasarkan analisis, diperoleh bahwa makna adjektiva bisa diidentifikasi
dengan menghubungkan konteks kalimat dengan karakteristik tipe-tipe makna itu
sendiri. Jadi dengan mengenali konteks kalimat dan menyesuaikan konteks tersebut.
Tipe-tipe makna yang terdapat dalam serial Penguin 60s Classic ‘Beowulf and
Grendel’ meliputi: conceptual, connotative, social affected, collocative dan makna
thematic. Penggunaan adjektiva memiliki tujuan dalam menjelaskan perasaan,
pikiran, keadaan serta obyek benda, baik hidup ataupun benda mati. Makna
conceptual suatu adjektiva berdiri sendiri dan tidak berhubungan dengan konteks
pada suatu wacana. Sementara makna connotative secara tidak langsung menjabarkan
luapan perasaan dan situasi gembira atau tidak menyenangkan. Karakteristik
adjektiva juga meliputi makna social. Penggunaan adjektiva dipengaruhi oleh sikap
atau perasaan pembicara terhadap kondisi atau situasi baik memuaskan ataupun
situasi sulit, dan lain-lain. Makna reflected tidak bisa ditemukan dalam analisis ini
sebab konteks seluruh adjektiva pada seri Penguin klasik tidak satu pun mengacu
pada makna tersebut. Beberapa adjektiva bersanding dengan obyek dengan
karakteristik tertentu. Makna thematic menyampaikan cara komunikasi yang berbeda
dan dibaca dengan tekanan.
Keyword: Adjective, Types of meaning, Context of sentence.