The document describes the liquid drop model of the atomic nucleus. It proposes that nuclear forces can be modeled as analogous to the intermolecular forces in a liquid drop. Key similarities include the nucleus being spherical, density being independent of volume, short-range forces between nucleons like molecules, evaporation of particles with increased energy, and fission producing smaller nuclei like oscillating drops splitting. The model can derive an expression for nuclear binding energy.
origin of quantum physics -
Inadequacy of classical mechanics and birth of QUANTUM PHYSICS
ref: Quantum mechanics: concepts and applications, N. Zettili
origin of quantum physics -
Inadequacy of classical mechanics and birth of QUANTUM PHYSICS
ref: Quantum mechanics: concepts and applications, N. Zettili
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
3. Facebook: https://web.facebook.com/Chemist.Rabia.Aziz/
4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
BS-III
lecture slide on:
Gibbs free energy and Nernst Equation, Faradaic Processes and Factors Affecting Rates of Electrode Reactions, Potentials and Thermodynamics of Cells, Kinetics of Electrode Reactions, Kinetic controlled reactions,Essentials of Electrode Reactions,BUTLER-VOLMER MODEL FOR THE ONE-STEP, ONE-ELECTRON PROCESS,Current-overpotential curves for the system, Mass Transfer by Migration And Diffusion,MASS-TRANSFER-CONTROLLED REACTIONS,
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
3. Facebook: https://web.facebook.com/Chemist.Rabia.Aziz/
4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
BS-III
lecture slide on:
Gibbs free energy and Nernst Equation, Faradaic Processes and Factors Affecting Rates of Electrode Reactions, Potentials and Thermodynamics of Cells, Kinetics of Electrode Reactions, Kinetic controlled reactions,Essentials of Electrode Reactions,BUTLER-VOLMER MODEL FOR THE ONE-STEP, ONE-ELECTRON PROCESS,Current-overpotential curves for the system, Mass Transfer by Migration And Diffusion,MASS-TRANSFER-CONTROLLED REACTIONS,
BOHRS MODEL AND ITS LIMITATIONS,Concept of shells and subshells, dual nature of matter and light, de broglie's relationship, heisenberg uncertainty principle, concept of orbitals, rules for filling electrons in orbitals-Aufbau principle.
Pauli's exclusion principle and hunds rule, electronic configuration of atoms, stability of half filled and completely filled orbitals.
Structure of Atoms some basic concepts of atomic structure its history of modelling and also the present and accepted model including the quantum model of atomic structure.
Introduction
Discovery of Sub-atomic Particles
Atomic Models
Developments leading to Bohr’s Model of atom
Bohr’s Model for Hydrogen atom
Quantum Mechanical Model of the atoms
Similar to liquid drop model and counter.pptx (20)
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
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How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
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http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
1. • In the liquid-drop model, the forces acting in the nucleus are
assumed to be analogical to the molecular forces in a droplet
of some liquid.
• This model was proposed by Neils Bohr who observed that
there are certain marked similarities between an atomic
nucleus and a liquid drop.
2. • The nucleus is supposed to be spherical in shape
in the stable state, just as a liquid drop is
spherical due to the symmetrical surface tension
forces.
• The force of surface tension acts on the surface of
the liquid drop. Similarly, there is a potential
barrier at the surface of the nucleus.
• The density of a liquid-drop is independent of its
volume. Similarly, the density of the nucleus is
independent of its volume.
3. • The intermolecular forces in a liquid are short
range forces. The molecules in a liquid drop
interact only with their immediate neighbours.
• Similarly, the nuclear forces are short range
forces. Nucleons in the nucleus also interact
only with their immediate neighbours. This
leads to the saturation in the nuclear forces
and a constant binding energy per nucleon
4. • The molecules evaporate from a liquid drop
on raising the temperature of the liquid due to
their increased energy of thermal agitation.
• Similarly, when energy is given to a nucleus by
bombarding it with nuclear projectiles, a
compound nucleus is formed which emits
nuclear radiations almost immediately.
5. • When a small drop of liquid is allowed to
oscillate, it breaks up into two smaller drops
of equal size.
• The process of nuclear fission is similar and
the nucleus breaks up into two smaller nuclei.
6. • The liquid-drop model can be used to obtain
an expression for the binding energy of the
nucleus.
• Weizacker proposed the semi-empirical
nuclear binding energy formula for a nucleus
of mass number A, containing Z protons and N
neutrons.
7. • The first term is called the volume energy of a
nucleus (Ev = aA).
• The larger the total number of nucleons A, the
more difficult it will be to remove the
individual protons and neutrons from the
nucleus.
• The B. E. is directly proportional to the total
number of nucleons A.
8. • The nucleons, at the surface of the nucleus,
are not completely surrounded by other
nucleons.
• Hence energy of the nucleon on the surface is
less than that in the interior. The number of
surface nucleons depends upon the surface
area of the nucleus
9. • The electrostatic repulsion between each pair
of protons in a nucleus also contributes
towards decreasing its B.E.
• The Coulomb energy Ec of a nucleus is the
work that must be done to bring together Z
protons from infinity into a volume equal to
that of the nucleus.
10. • A Geiger counter (Geiger-Muller tube) is a
device used for the detection and
measurement of all types of radiation: alpha,
beta and gamma radiation.
• Basically it consists of a pair of electrodes
surrounded by a gas.
• The electrodes have a high voltage across them.
The gas used is usually Helium or Argon.
• When radiation enters the tube it can ionize the
gas.
• The ions (and electrons) are attracted to the
electrodes and an electric current is produced.
• A scalar counts the current pulses, and one
obtains a ”count” whenever radiation ionizes
the gas.
11. • The apparatus consists of two parts, the tube and the (counter +
power supply).
• When ionizing radiation such as an alpha, beta or gamma particle
enters the tube, it can ionize some of the gas molecules in the tube.
• From these ionized atoms, an electron is knocked out of the atom,
and the remaining atom is positively charged.
• The high voltage in the tube produces an electric field inside the
tube.
• The electrons that were knocked out of the atom are attracted to
the positive electrode, and the positively charged ions are attracted
to the negative electrode.
• This produces a pulse of current in the wires connecting the
electrodes, and this pulse is counted.
• After the pulse is counted, the charged ions become neutralized,
and the Geiger counter is ready to record another pulse.
12. • The efficiency of a detector is given by the
ratio of the (number of particles of radiation
detected)/(number of particles of radiation
emitted)
• ε ≡ number of particles of radiation detected
_____________________________________
number of particles of radiation emitted
13. • They are relatively inexpensive.
• They are durable and easily portable.
• They can detect all types of radiation
14. • They cannot differentiate which type of
radiation is being detected.
• They cannot be used to determine the exact
energy of the detected radiation.
• They have a very low efficiency
15. • A Cloud Chamber is a device used to detect
ionizing particles and to determine their
trajectories.
16. 1. Liquid is placed into a
chamber and allowed to
reach an equilibrium state of
evaporation and
condensation. (saturation)
2. Chamber is adiabatically
cooled or expanded, resulting
in supersaturation of the air
inside. (disruptions will cause
quick & easy condensation)
17. 3. Ionizing radiation passing
through the vapor ionize
nearby atoms and
molecules.
4. Condensation occurs around
ionized molecules, revealing
the path of the ionizing
particles.
18. The Cyclotron
• A cyclotron is a machine that accelerates
charged particles or ions to high energies. It
was invented to investigate the nuclear
structure by E.O Lawrence and M.S Livingston
in 1934.
19.
20. • A cyclotron accelerates a charged particle beam
using a high frequency alternating voltage which
is applied between two hollow “D”-shaped sheet
metal electrodes known as the “dees” inside a
vacuum chamber.
• The dees are placed face to face with a narrow
gap between them, creating a cylindrical space
within them for particles to move. Particles are
injected into the center of this space.
21. • Dees are located between the poles of
electromagnet which applies a static magnetic
field B perpendicular to the electrode plane.
• The magnetic field causes the path of the
particle to bend in a circle due to the Lorentz
force perpendicular to their direction of
motion.
22. • An alternating voltage of several thousand volts
are applied between the dees. The voltage
creates an oscillating electric field in the gap
between the dees that accelerates the particles.
• The frequency of the voltage is set so that
particles make one circuit during a single cycle of
the voltage. To achieve this condition, the
frequency must be set to particle’s cyclotron
frequency.