- IPv4 addresses are 32-bit addresses that uniquely identify devices connected to the Internet. They allow for over 4 billion unique addresses.
- IPv4 addresses can be written in binary, decimal dotted notation, or hexadecimal formats. They are hierarchical, with a network portion and host portion.
- Originally, IPv4 used classful addressing with fixed length prefixes to divide the address space. This led to inefficient address allocation and depletion.
- Subnetting and supernetting were introduced to allow flexible division of networks into subnets and combining of networks. This helped optimize address usage.
Subnets divide a network into smaller sub-networks or subnets. Each subnet is treated as a separate network and can be further divided. When a packet enters a network with subnets, routers will route based on the subnet ID which is a combination of the network ID and subnet portion of the IP address. Subnets are only relevant for routing within an organization and are transparent outside the organization.
IPv4 is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol (IP) and routes most internet traffic. It uses 32-bit addresses, allowing for over 4 billion devices to connect. Addresses are written in binary or dotted-decimal notation, with each part identifying the network or host. IPv4 addresses are divided into classes A-C that determine the portions for network vs host identification, with classes D-E being reserved. Issues with IPv4 include a limited address space and increasing routing tables as the internet grows.
- The document discusses Internet Protocol (IP) which is the principal communications protocol for relaying datagrams across network boundaries. There are two major versions - IPv4 which is the dominant protocol, and IPv6 which is its successor.
- IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses divided into five classes (A, B, C, D, E). It allows for over 4 billion addresses but deficiencies in the classful addressing system led to address depletion.
- Classless addressing was introduced to overcome depletion by granting variable length address blocks defined by an IP address and network mask. This provides a hierarchical addressing structure and greater flexibility.
A routing algorithm determines the best path for data packets to travel between a source and destination on the Internet. This document discusses and compares different routing algorithms used within autonomous systems (ASes) and between ASes. It covers link-state algorithms like OSPF that use flooding to share full topology information, distance-vector algorithms like RIP that share routing tables with neighbors, and BGP which connects different ASes and allows policies to influence path selection.
The document provides an overview of Huffman coding, a lossless data compression algorithm. It begins with a simple example to illustrate the basic idea of assigning shorter codes to more frequent symbols. It then defines key terms like entropy and describes the Huffman coding algorithm, which constructs an optimal prefix code from the frequency of symbols in the data. The document discusses how Huffman coding can be applied to image compression by first predicting pixel values and then encoding the residuals. It notes some disadvantages of Huffman coding and describes variations like adaptive Huffman coding.
This document discusses the Internet Protocol (IP) version 4 and 6. It describes the key tasks of IP including addressing computers and fragmenting packets. IP version 4 uses 32-bit addresses while IP version 6 uses 128-bit addresses and has improvements like larger address space and better security. The document also covers IP address classes, private addressing, subnetting, Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), and address blocks.
The transport layer provides efficient, reliable, and cost-effective process-to-process delivery by making use of network layer services. The transport layer works through transport entities to achieve its goal of reliable delivery between application processes. It provides an interface for applications to access its services.
Subnets divide a network into smaller sub-networks or subnets. Each subnet is treated as a separate network and can be further divided. When a packet enters a network with subnets, routers will route based on the subnet ID which is a combination of the network ID and subnet portion of the IP address. Subnets are only relevant for routing within an organization and are transparent outside the organization.
IPv4 is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol (IP) and routes most internet traffic. It uses 32-bit addresses, allowing for over 4 billion devices to connect. Addresses are written in binary or dotted-decimal notation, with each part identifying the network or host. IPv4 addresses are divided into classes A-C that determine the portions for network vs host identification, with classes D-E being reserved. Issues with IPv4 include a limited address space and increasing routing tables as the internet grows.
- The document discusses Internet Protocol (IP) which is the principal communications protocol for relaying datagrams across network boundaries. There are two major versions - IPv4 which is the dominant protocol, and IPv6 which is its successor.
- IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses divided into five classes (A, B, C, D, E). It allows for over 4 billion addresses but deficiencies in the classful addressing system led to address depletion.
- Classless addressing was introduced to overcome depletion by granting variable length address blocks defined by an IP address and network mask. This provides a hierarchical addressing structure and greater flexibility.
A routing algorithm determines the best path for data packets to travel between a source and destination on the Internet. This document discusses and compares different routing algorithms used within autonomous systems (ASes) and between ASes. It covers link-state algorithms like OSPF that use flooding to share full topology information, distance-vector algorithms like RIP that share routing tables with neighbors, and BGP which connects different ASes and allows policies to influence path selection.
The document provides an overview of Huffman coding, a lossless data compression algorithm. It begins with a simple example to illustrate the basic idea of assigning shorter codes to more frequent symbols. It then defines key terms like entropy and describes the Huffman coding algorithm, which constructs an optimal prefix code from the frequency of symbols in the data. The document discusses how Huffman coding can be applied to image compression by first predicting pixel values and then encoding the residuals. It notes some disadvantages of Huffman coding and describes variations like adaptive Huffman coding.
This document discusses the Internet Protocol (IP) version 4 and 6. It describes the key tasks of IP including addressing computers and fragmenting packets. IP version 4 uses 32-bit addresses while IP version 6 uses 128-bit addresses and has improvements like larger address space and better security. The document also covers IP address classes, private addressing, subnetting, Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), and address blocks.
The transport layer provides efficient, reliable, and cost-effective process-to-process delivery by making use of network layer services. The transport layer works through transport entities to achieve its goal of reliable delivery between application processes. It provides an interface for applications to access its services.
Bresenham's line algorithm is an efficient method for drawing lines on a digital display. It works by calculating the next pixel coordinate along the line using integer math only. This avoids complex floating point calculations. It starts at the initial coordinate and iteratively calculates the next x,y coordinate using integer addition and comparisons until it reaches the final endpoint.
This is Powerpoint Presentation on IP addressing & Subnet masking. This presentation describes how IP address works, what its classes and how the subnet masking works and more.
The document discusses several techniques for error detection in digital communications, including block coding, parity checking, cyclic redundancy checks (CRC), and Hamming codes. Block coding involves dividing a message into blocks of k bits and adding r redundant bits to each block. Parity checking adds an extra bit to detect errors by checking if the number of 1's is even or odd. CRC generates a frame check sequence such that the data block and sequence are divisible by a predetermined number to detect errors. Hamming codes add k parity bits to an n-bit data word to detect and sometimes correct errors. These techniques help detect errors caused by interference during transmission but cannot always determine the location or correct multiple errors.
Computer Networks Unit 2 UNIT II DATA-LINK LAYER & MEDIA ACCESSDr. SELVAGANESAN S
The document discusses data link layer framing and protocols. It describes:
1) Two main approaches to framing - byte-oriented (using sentinel characters) and bit-oriented (using bit stuffing). Protocols discussed include BISYNC, DDCMP, and HDLC.
2) Features of PPP framing including negotiated field sizes and use of LCP control messages.
3) Functions of data link layer including framing, flow control, error control, and media access control. The relationship between the logical link control and media access control sublayers is also covered.
These slides cover a topic on ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) in Data Communication. All the slides are explained in a very simple manner. It is useful for engineering students & also for the candidates who want to master data communication & computer networking.
This document contains 16 important questions covering various topics related to computer networks across 5 units. The questions cover topics such as the ISO-OSI model, data encoding schemes, error detection and correction mechanisms, network layer protocols, transport layer protocols, network security, application layer protocols, and web technologies. Key topics include data link layer functions, error detection methods, flow control, network layer routing protocols, transport layer protocols TCP and UDP, network security concepts, and application layer protocols like HTTP, FTP, and DNS.
The network layer is responsible for routing packets from the source to destination. The routing algorithm is the piece of software that decides where a packet goes next (e.g., which output line, or which node on a broadcast channel).For connectionless networks, the routing decision is made for each datagram. For connection-oriented networks, the decision is made once, at circuit setup time.
Routing Issues
The routing algorithm must deal with the following issues:
Correctness and simplicity: networks are never taken down; individual parts (e.g., links, routers) may fail, but the whole network should not.
Stability: if a link or router fails, how much time elapses before the remaining routers recognize the topology change? (Some never do..)
Fairness and optimality: an inherently intractable problem. Definition of optimality usually doesn't consider fairness. Do we want to maximize channel usage? Minimize average delay?
When we look at routing in detail, we'll consider both adaptive--those that take current traffic and topology into consideration--and nonadaptive algorithms.
IP addressing and subnetting allows networks to be logically organized and divided. The key objectives covered include explaining IP address classes, configuring addresses, subnetting networks, and advanced concepts like CIDR, summarization, and VLSM. Transitioning to IPv6 is also discussed as a way to address the depletion of IPv4 addresses and improve security.
This document discusses 2D geometric transformations including translation, rotation, and scaling. It provides the mathematical definitions and matrix representations for each transformation. Translation moves an object along a straight path, rotation moves it along a circular path, and scaling changes its size. All transformations can be represented by 3x3 matrices using homogeneous coordinates to allow combinations of multiple transformations. The inverse of each transformation matrix is also defined.
The network layer provides two main services: connectionless and connection-oriented. Connectionless service routes packets independently through routers using destination addresses and routing tables. Connection-oriented service establishes a virtual circuit between source and destination, routing all related traffic along the pre-determined path. The document also discusses store-and-forward packet switching, where packets are stored until fully received before being forwarded, and services provided to the transport layer like uniform addressing.
This slide contain description about the line, circle and ellipse drawing algorithm in computer graphics. It also deals with the filled area primitive.
Subnetting of IPv4 ip address that help you to solve every type of ip address with any one of the class you want to subnet,and have a basic introduction of IPv6 ,and why, Ipv5 is not used.
This document provides an overview of IPv6, including:
- The need for IPv6 due to the depletion of IPv4 addresses and limitations of IPv4's classful addressing.
- Techniques used to extend IPv4 like subnetting, CIDR, and NAT.
- Key features of IPv6 like its larger 128-bit address space, stateless autoconfiguration, and security improvements.
- Differences between IPv4 and IPv6 headers and IPv6's use of extension headers.
- The presentation concludes that IPv6 builds upon IPv4's foundations but addresses its limitations.
The document discusses the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). ICMP provides error reporting, congestion reporting, and first-hop router redirection. It uses IP to carry its data end-to-end and is considered an integral part of IP. ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP datagrams and are used to report errors in IP datagrams, though some errors may still result in datagrams being dropped without a report. ICMP defines various message types including error messages like destination unreachable and informational messages like echo request and reply.
IP addresses are numeric identifiers assigned to devices connected to a network. IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses represented in dotted decimal notation, while IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses represented by 8 groups of hexadecimal digits separated by colons. IP addresses have two parts - a network portion allocated by ISPs and a host portion assigned to individual devices. IPv4 classes (A, B, C, D, E) determine how many bits are used for the network vs host portions. IPv6 supports a much larger address space and easier auto-configuration compared to IPv4.
Distance Vector & Link state Routing AlgorithmMOHIT AGARWAL
1) Each router maintains a routing table containing the outgoing link and distance to reach each destination node. 2) Routers periodically share their routing tables with neighbors so each can update its own table. 3) This allows routers to continuously determine the shortest paths to all destinations as network conditions change.
The document discusses address resolution protocol (ARP) which maps logical IP addresses to physical MAC addresses on a local area network. It explains that ARP broadcasts a request to find the MAC address associated with a given IP address, and the device with that IP address responds with its MAC. This dynamic address mapping is stored in an ARP cache for future use. It also describes how different network protocols may use ARP or similar methods to perform address mapping between logical and physical addresses.
The document discusses the key features and mechanisms of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). It begins with an introduction to TCP's main goals of reliable, in-order delivery of data streams between endpoints. It then covers TCP's connection establishment and termination processes, flow and error control techniques using acknowledgments and retransmissions, and congestion control methods like slow start, congestion avoidance, and detection.
Network Layer addresses data at the logical and physical levels. Logical addresses are generated by CPUs and allow virtual addressing, while physical addresses map to specific memory locations. The network layer provides routing across multiple physical links from one device to another. IP addresses uniquely identify devices on the Internet, though they can change over time as connections change. IPv6 was developed to address the impending exhaustion of IPv4 addresses by expanding the address space to 128 bits.
IPv4 is an internet protocol that uses 32-bit addresses divided into a network prefix and host number. Addresses are assigned by IANA and expressed in dotted decimal notation. IPv4 addresses were originally divided into classes A, B, and C but are now commonly assigned using CIDR which allows for variable length subnet masks and more efficient address space usage.
Bresenham's line algorithm is an efficient method for drawing lines on a digital display. It works by calculating the next pixel coordinate along the line using integer math only. This avoids complex floating point calculations. It starts at the initial coordinate and iteratively calculates the next x,y coordinate using integer addition and comparisons until it reaches the final endpoint.
This is Powerpoint Presentation on IP addressing & Subnet masking. This presentation describes how IP address works, what its classes and how the subnet masking works and more.
The document discusses several techniques for error detection in digital communications, including block coding, parity checking, cyclic redundancy checks (CRC), and Hamming codes. Block coding involves dividing a message into blocks of k bits and adding r redundant bits to each block. Parity checking adds an extra bit to detect errors by checking if the number of 1's is even or odd. CRC generates a frame check sequence such that the data block and sequence are divisible by a predetermined number to detect errors. Hamming codes add k parity bits to an n-bit data word to detect and sometimes correct errors. These techniques help detect errors caused by interference during transmission but cannot always determine the location or correct multiple errors.
Computer Networks Unit 2 UNIT II DATA-LINK LAYER & MEDIA ACCESSDr. SELVAGANESAN S
The document discusses data link layer framing and protocols. It describes:
1) Two main approaches to framing - byte-oriented (using sentinel characters) and bit-oriented (using bit stuffing). Protocols discussed include BISYNC, DDCMP, and HDLC.
2) Features of PPP framing including negotiated field sizes and use of LCP control messages.
3) Functions of data link layer including framing, flow control, error control, and media access control. The relationship between the logical link control and media access control sublayers is also covered.
These slides cover a topic on ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) in Data Communication. All the slides are explained in a very simple manner. It is useful for engineering students & also for the candidates who want to master data communication & computer networking.
This document contains 16 important questions covering various topics related to computer networks across 5 units. The questions cover topics such as the ISO-OSI model, data encoding schemes, error detection and correction mechanisms, network layer protocols, transport layer protocols, network security, application layer protocols, and web technologies. Key topics include data link layer functions, error detection methods, flow control, network layer routing protocols, transport layer protocols TCP and UDP, network security concepts, and application layer protocols like HTTP, FTP, and DNS.
The network layer is responsible for routing packets from the source to destination. The routing algorithm is the piece of software that decides where a packet goes next (e.g., which output line, or which node on a broadcast channel).For connectionless networks, the routing decision is made for each datagram. For connection-oriented networks, the decision is made once, at circuit setup time.
Routing Issues
The routing algorithm must deal with the following issues:
Correctness and simplicity: networks are never taken down; individual parts (e.g., links, routers) may fail, but the whole network should not.
Stability: if a link or router fails, how much time elapses before the remaining routers recognize the topology change? (Some never do..)
Fairness and optimality: an inherently intractable problem. Definition of optimality usually doesn't consider fairness. Do we want to maximize channel usage? Minimize average delay?
When we look at routing in detail, we'll consider both adaptive--those that take current traffic and topology into consideration--and nonadaptive algorithms.
IP addressing and subnetting allows networks to be logically organized and divided. The key objectives covered include explaining IP address classes, configuring addresses, subnetting networks, and advanced concepts like CIDR, summarization, and VLSM. Transitioning to IPv6 is also discussed as a way to address the depletion of IPv4 addresses and improve security.
This document discusses 2D geometric transformations including translation, rotation, and scaling. It provides the mathematical definitions and matrix representations for each transformation. Translation moves an object along a straight path, rotation moves it along a circular path, and scaling changes its size. All transformations can be represented by 3x3 matrices using homogeneous coordinates to allow combinations of multiple transformations. The inverse of each transformation matrix is also defined.
The network layer provides two main services: connectionless and connection-oriented. Connectionless service routes packets independently through routers using destination addresses and routing tables. Connection-oriented service establishes a virtual circuit between source and destination, routing all related traffic along the pre-determined path. The document also discusses store-and-forward packet switching, where packets are stored until fully received before being forwarded, and services provided to the transport layer like uniform addressing.
This slide contain description about the line, circle and ellipse drawing algorithm in computer graphics. It also deals with the filled area primitive.
Subnetting of IPv4 ip address that help you to solve every type of ip address with any one of the class you want to subnet,and have a basic introduction of IPv6 ,and why, Ipv5 is not used.
This document provides an overview of IPv6, including:
- The need for IPv6 due to the depletion of IPv4 addresses and limitations of IPv4's classful addressing.
- Techniques used to extend IPv4 like subnetting, CIDR, and NAT.
- Key features of IPv6 like its larger 128-bit address space, stateless autoconfiguration, and security improvements.
- Differences between IPv4 and IPv6 headers and IPv6's use of extension headers.
- The presentation concludes that IPv6 builds upon IPv4's foundations but addresses its limitations.
The document discusses the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). ICMP provides error reporting, congestion reporting, and first-hop router redirection. It uses IP to carry its data end-to-end and is considered an integral part of IP. ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP datagrams and are used to report errors in IP datagrams, though some errors may still result in datagrams being dropped without a report. ICMP defines various message types including error messages like destination unreachable and informational messages like echo request and reply.
IP addresses are numeric identifiers assigned to devices connected to a network. IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses represented in dotted decimal notation, while IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses represented by 8 groups of hexadecimal digits separated by colons. IP addresses have two parts - a network portion allocated by ISPs and a host portion assigned to individual devices. IPv4 classes (A, B, C, D, E) determine how many bits are used for the network vs host portions. IPv6 supports a much larger address space and easier auto-configuration compared to IPv4.
Distance Vector & Link state Routing AlgorithmMOHIT AGARWAL
1) Each router maintains a routing table containing the outgoing link and distance to reach each destination node. 2) Routers periodically share their routing tables with neighbors so each can update its own table. 3) This allows routers to continuously determine the shortest paths to all destinations as network conditions change.
The document discusses address resolution protocol (ARP) which maps logical IP addresses to physical MAC addresses on a local area network. It explains that ARP broadcasts a request to find the MAC address associated with a given IP address, and the device with that IP address responds with its MAC. This dynamic address mapping is stored in an ARP cache for future use. It also describes how different network protocols may use ARP or similar methods to perform address mapping between logical and physical addresses.
The document discusses the key features and mechanisms of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). It begins with an introduction to TCP's main goals of reliable, in-order delivery of data streams between endpoints. It then covers TCP's connection establishment and termination processes, flow and error control techniques using acknowledgments and retransmissions, and congestion control methods like slow start, congestion avoidance, and detection.
Network Layer addresses data at the logical and physical levels. Logical addresses are generated by CPUs and allow virtual addressing, while physical addresses map to specific memory locations. The network layer provides routing across multiple physical links from one device to another. IP addresses uniquely identify devices on the Internet, though they can change over time as connections change. IPv6 was developed to address the impending exhaustion of IPv4 addresses by expanding the address space to 128 bits.
IPv4 is an internet protocol that uses 32-bit addresses divided into a network prefix and host number. Addresses are assigned by IANA and expressed in dotted decimal notation. IPv4 addresses were originally divided into classes A, B, and C but are now commonly assigned using CIDR which allows for variable length subnet masks and more efficient address space usage.
IP addresses are a unique identifier for devices connected to a network. They allow for the delivery of data packets across networks. The structure of IP addresses includes a network prefix that identifies the network and a host number that identifies the specific device. Techniques like subnetting, CIDR, and IPv6 were developed to address the limited available IPv4 address space and allow for more efficient allocation and routing of IP addresses.
The document provides an overview of Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and IPv6, including key concepts such as IP addresses, subnetting, network address translation (NAT), and dual IP stacks. It defines the core components and classifications of IPv4 and IPv6 addressing, and how devices configure TCP/IP settings like default gateways and DNS servers.
The document provides an overview of Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and IPv6, including key concepts such as IP addresses, subnetting, network address translation (NAT), and dual IP stacks. It defines the core components and classifications of IPv4 and IPv6 addressing, and how devices configure TCP/IP settings like default gateways and DNS servers.
1) The document discusses IP addressing and the different types of addresses used - physical, logical (IP), port, and specific addresses.
2) It describes the four classes of IP addresses - Class A, B, C, and D - and the network and host portions of each. Class A is for large networks, Class B for medium, and Class C for small networks.
3) Certain IP addresses are reserved and cannot be assigned to hosts, including network addresses, broadcast addresses, and the loopback address of 127.0.0.1. Proper allocation of addresses is important to avoid conflicts.
this is a presentationon ip and cidr.pptBlackHat41
The document discusses IP addressing and related concepts. It covers the structure of IP addresses, classful IP addresses and their limitations, subnetting to add hierarchy and flexibility, and CIDR which abandons classes and allows arbitrary prefix lengths to improve efficiency and reduce routing tables. It also mentions IPv6 which was developed to replace IPv4 due to its limited 32-bit address space.
This document discusses IP addressing concepts including:
1. An IP address is a unique set of numbers that identifies each device on a network and allows information to be delivered to the correct destination.
2. IP addresses are needed so requests from computers can be routed back to the correct source location. Static and dynamic IP addressing methods are compared.
3. IPv4 addresses are made up of four octets separated by periods, with each octet ranging from 0-255. Address classes A, B, C determine network and host portions of addresses.
This document provides an introduction to IP addressing and subnetting. It discusses key topics including IP addresses and versions IPv4 and IPv6, network classes in IPv4, subnet masks, private addresses, Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), gateway addresses, and subnetting including variable length subnet masks. Examples are provided to illustrate subnetting networks and determining valid subnets, broadcast addresses, and host ranges.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in the network layer, including:
- The network layer is responsible for moving data between sending and receiving endpoints by encapsulating transport segments into datagrams.
- The two main functions of the network layer are forwarding, which moves packets through routers, and routing, which determines the path packets take from source to destination.
- IP addresses are 32-bit identifiers assigned to network interfaces that allow endpoints to communicate and routers to forward packets. IP addresses use hierarchy and prefixes to scale routing across large networks like the Internet.
The document discusses classful IP addressing and subnetting. It begins by explaining classful IP addressing and its issues with flexibility, efficiency, and router table entries. It then introduces subnetting as a way to create a hierarchical network structure and better allocate addresses. The key points are that subnetting splits the host ID portion of an IP address into subnet ID and host ID bits, and that a subnet mask specifies this split and is used by routers to determine the network and subnet portions of an IP address. Examples are provided to illustrate how subnet masks are determined and how subnets, subnet addresses, and host addresses are designated for a given network address range.
This document discusses IP addressing concepts including:
- An IP address is a numeric identifier assigned to each device on a network that indicates its location. It is a software address, not a hardware address.
- IP addresses are written in dotted decimal format with four sections separated by dots, where each section contains a number between 0 and 255.
- The network mask splits an IP address into the network portion and host portion, with 1s in the network mask indicating the network section and 0s the host section.
This document discusses reserved IP addresses including network addresses, broadcast addresses, and other special addresses. It provides examples of network addresses for different address classes and explains how the network and host portions of an IP address are used. Broadcast addresses that end in all 1s are used to transmit packets to all devices on a network. Loopback and link-local addresses are also discussed.
IP addressing involves assigning unique addresses to devices on a network. The document discusses:
- The structure of IP addresses and how they are represented in dotted decimal notation.
- The limitations of the original class-based IP address system and solutions like subnetting and CIDR that allow for more flexible address assignments.
- The transition to IP Version 6 which uses a 128-bit address format to accommodate more available addresses as IPv4 address space is depleted.
IP addressing involves assigning unique addresses to devices on a network. The document discusses:
- The structure of IP addresses and how they are represented in dotted decimal notation.
- The limitations of the original classful IP address system and how subnetting and CIDR were developed to address these issues by allowing more flexible assignment of address prefixes.
- How IP Version 6 was created to replace IPv4 and expand the available address space as IPv4 addresses were becoming exhausted.
The document discusses IP addressing and subnetting. It explains that an IP address consists of 32 bits and can be represented in dotted-decimal, binary, or hexadecimal notation. The 32-bit address is divided into four octets. Subnetting allows a network administrator to create multiple logical subnets within a single IP network by borrowing bits from the host field of the address and designating them as the subnet field. The document provides an example of how to determine the subnet mask size, create subnets, and calculate subnet, host, and broadcast addresses when subnetting a network.
This document provides an introduction to computer networks and IP addressing. It discusses the history of computer networks and the development of networking models like OSI and TCP/IP. IP addresses are unique addresses that allow devices to communicate on a network. The document describes the different classes of IP addresses (A, B, C, D, E) and how they divide the 32-bit address space. It also explains the concepts of network IDs, host IDs, subnet masks, and how subnetting can be used to logically divide a large network into smaller subnetworks.
IP addresses have a structure that includes a network prefix and host number. Subnetting splits the host number portion into a subnet number and smaller host number, creating a three-layer IP address hierarchy of network, subnet, and host. This allows organizations to independently manage multiple internal networks while keeping subnet structure invisible externally, improving efficiency of IP address usage and reducing router complexity.
The document discusses IPv4 addressing and subnetting. It begins by explaining the need for a network layer and describing IPv4 addressing fundamentals like address classes and notations. It then covers topics like subnet masks, CIDR notation, private IP ranges for NAT, and address depletion issues in IPv4. The document provides examples of subnetting Class C addresses using different subnet mask values. It also gives practice examples of subnetting Class B addresses.
The document discusses IP addresses and IPv6 addresses. It provides information on the structure of IP addresses, subnetting, CIDR notation, and IPv6 addressing. Some key points include:
- An IP address identifies a device on a network and has two parts - a network prefix and host number. Subnetting splits the host number into a subnet number and smaller host number.
- CIDR notation specifies the length of the network prefix to efficiently allocate address space. IPv6 addresses are 128-bit for a huge number of available addresses compared to IPv4.
- IPv6 introduces new address types like multicast for groups and anycast to select one group member. Provider-based addressing allocates IPv6
Rod Johnson created the Spring Framework, an open-source Java application framework. Spring is considered a flexible, low-cost framework that improves coding efficiency. It helps developers perform functions like creating database transaction methods without transaction APIs. Spring removes configuration work so developers can focus on writing business logic. The Spring Framework uses inversion of control (IoC) and dependency injection (DI) principles to manage application objects and dependencies between them.
The document discusses REST (REpresentational State Transfer) APIs. It defines REST as a style of architecture for distributed hypermedia systems, including definitions of resources, URIs to identify resources, and HTTP methods like GET, POST, PUT, DELETE to operate on resources. It describes key REST concepts like resources, URIs, requests and responses, and architectural constraints like being stateless and cacheable. It provides examples of defining resources and URIs for a blog application API.
SOA involves breaking large applications into smaller, independent services that communicate with each other, while monolith architecture keeps all application code and components together within a single codebase; services in SOA should have well-defined interfaces and be loosely coupled, stateless, and reusable; components of SOA include services, service consumers, registries, transports, and protocols like SOAP and REST that allow services to communicate.
The application layer sits at Layer 7, the top of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communications model. It ensures an application can effectively communicate with other applications on different computer systems and networks. The application layer is not an application.
The document discusses connecting Node.js applications to NoSQL MongoDB databases using Mongoose. It begins with an introduction to MongoDB and NoSQL databases. It then covers how to install Mongoose and connect a Node.js application to a MongoDB database. It provides examples of performing CRUD operations in MongoDB using Mongoose, including inserting, updating, and deleting documents.
Node.js supports JavaScript syntax and uses modules to organize code. There are three types of modules - core modules which are built-in, local modules within the project, and third-party modules. Core modules like HTTP and file system (FS) provide key functionalities. To create a basic HTTP server, the HTTP core module is required, a server is set up to listen on a port using createServer(), and requests are handled using the request and response objects.
The navigation bar connects all relevant website pages through links, allowing users to easily navigate between them. It displays page names and links in an accessible searchable format. Bootstrap provides the '.navbar' class to create navigation bars that are fluid and responsive by default. Forms collect and update user information through interactive elements like text fields, checkboxes, and buttons. Bootstrap supports stacked and inline forms, and input groups enhance form fields with prepended or appended text using the '.input-group' and '.input-group-text' classes.
The document describes 3 steps to use Bootstrap offline:
1. Download the compiled CSS and JS files from Bootstrap and extract them locally. Reference the local files in an HTML document instead of CDN links.
2. Bootstrap depends on jQuery, so download the compressed jQuery file and save it in the Bootstrap JS folder for the Bootstrap code to work offline.
3. As an alternative to manually downloading the files, the Bootstrap directory can be downloaded using NPM which will package all necessary dependencies.
This document discusses several Java programming concepts including nested classes, object parameters, recursion, and command line arguments. Nested classes allow a class to be declared within another class and access private members of the outer class. Objects can be passed as parameters to methods, allowing the method to modify the object's fields. Recursion is when a method calls itself, such as a recursive method to calculate factorials. Command line arguments allow passing input to a program when running it from the command line.
This document provides an overview of social network analysis. It defines key concepts like nodes, edges, degrees, and centrality measures. It describes different types of networks including full networks, egocentric networks, affiliation networks, and multiplex networks. It also outlines common network analysis metrics that can be used to analyze networks at both the aggregate and individual level. These include measures like density, degree centrality, betweenness centrality, closeness centrality, and eigenvector centrality. The document discusses tools for social network analysis and ways of visually mapping social networks.
This document provides an overview of social media and social networks. It discusses key dimensions of social media systems including size of producer/consumer populations, pace of interaction, genre of basic elements, control of elements, types of connections, and retention of content. Examples are given for different social media types like asynchronous/synchronous conversations, social sharing, social networking, online markets, web/collaborative authoring, and blogs/podcasts. The rise of social media and how it has changed communication is also examined.
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We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
2. IPV4 ADDRESSES
• to identify the connection of each device to the Internet is called the
Internet address or IP address
• IPv4 address is a 32-bit address
• defines the connection of a host or a router to the Internet.
• The IP address is the address of the connection, not the host or the
router, because if the device is moved to another network, the IP
address may be changed.
3.
4. • IPv4 addresses are unique in the sense that each address defines one,
and only one, connection to the Internet.
• If a device has two connections to the Internet, via two networks, it
has two IPv4 addresses.
• IPv4 addresses are universal in the sense that the addressing system
must be accepted by any host that wants to be connected to the
Internet.
IPV4 ADDRESSES
5. Address Space
• An address space is the total number of addresses used by the
protocol
• IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that the address space is 2b
or 4,294,967,296 (more than four billion).
• If there were no restrictions, more than 4 billion devices could be
connected to the Internet.
6. Notation
There are three common notations to show an IPv4 address:
• binary notation (base 2),
• dotted-decimal notation (base 256), and
• hexadecimal notation (base 16).
• In binary notation, an IPv4 address is displayed as 32 bits.
7.
8. A 32-bit IPv4 address is also hierarchical, but divided only into two
parts.
• The first part of the address, called the prefix, defines the network;
• the second part of the address, called the suffix, defines the node
(connection of a device to the Internet).
Hierarchy in Addressing
9.
10. Hierarchy in Addressing
• A prefix can be fixed length or variable length.
• The network identifier in the IPv4 was first designed as a fixed-length
prefix. This scheme, is referred to as classful addressing.
• The network identifier in the IPv4 uses a variable-length network
prefix. This scheme, which is referred to as classless addressing,
11. Classful Addressing
• IPv4 address was designed with a fixed-length prefix
• three fixed-length prefixes were designed instead of one (n = 8, n =
16, and n = 24)
• The whole address space was divided into five classes (class A, B, C, D,
and E)
12. • In class A, the network length is 8 bits, but since the first bit, which is 0,
defines the class, we can have only seven bits as the network identifier.
• This means there are only 27 = 128 networks in the world that can have a class
A address.
• class B, the network length is 16 bits, but since the first two bits, define the
class, we can have only 14 bits as the network identifier.
• This means there are only 214 = 16,384 networks in the world that can have a
class B address.
• first three bits 110 belong to class C. the network length is 24 bits, but since
three bits define the class, we can have only 21 bits as the network identifier.
This means there are 221 = 2,097,152
• 1110 bits to Class D is not divided into prefix and suffix. It is used for
multicast addresses.
• All addresses that start with 1111 in binary belong to class E. As in Class D,
Class E is not divided into prefix and suffix and is used as reserve.
13.
14. • The 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits).
• Each octet is converted to decimal and separated by a period (dot).
For this reason,
• an IP address is said to be expressed in dotted decimal format (for
example, 172.16.81.100).
• The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 decimal, or 00000000 -
11111111 binary.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
(128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1=255)
15.
16. Class A Address
IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x only
Class B Address
128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x.
Class C Address
192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x.
Class D Address
224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255.
Class E Address
240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254.
17. Q1
• What is the size of the address space in each of the following
systems?
• a. A system in which each address is only 16 bits
• b. A system in which each address is made of six hexadecimal digits
• c. A system in which each address is made of four octal digits
21. Rewrite the following IP addresses
using dotted-decimal notation:
• a. 01011110 10110000 01110101 00010101
• b. 10001001 10001110 11010000 00110001
• c. 01010111 10000100 00110111 00001111
23. Find the class of the following classful IP addresses:
a.130.34.54.12
b.200.34.2.1
c.245.34.2.8
24. Find the class of the following classful IP addresses:
a.130.34.54.12
• Class B
b.200.34.2.1
• Class C
c.245.34.2.8
• Class D
25. Address Depletion
• The addresses were not distributed properly
• the Internet was faced with the problem of the addresses being
rapidly used up, resulting in no more addresses available for
organizations and Individuals that needed to be connected to the
Internet.
26. • Class A can be assigned to only 128 organizations in
the world, but each organization needs to have a
single network with 16,777,216 nodes (computers in
this single network). Since there may be only a few
organizations that are this large, most of the
addresses in this class were wasted (unused).
• Class B addresses were designed for midsize
organizations, but many of the addresses in this class
also remained unused.
• Class C addresses have a completely different flaw in
design. The number of addresses that can be used in
each network (256) was so small that most companies
were not comfortable using a block in this address
class.
• Class E addresses were almost never used, wasting
the whole class.
27. Advantage of Classful Addressing
• easily find the class of the address and, since the prefix length for
each class is fixed,
• the prefix length in classful addressing is inherent in the address;
• no extra information is needed to extract the prefix and the suffix
28. •To improve address depletion, two strategies
were proposed
•Subnetting and
•Supernetting
29. Subnetting and Supernetting
• The process of dividing a network into subnetwork is called as subnetting,
• The process of combining small networks into a large network is called
supernetting.
• In subnetting, the numbers of bits of network addresses are increased
• In supernetting the number of bits of host addresses is increased.
• Supernetting is designed to make the routing process more convenient.
• It reduces the size of routing table information; therefore, it consumes less
space in the router’s memory.
30. Subnetting
• single IP network : Problems with Large Networks
• Subnetting is the technique of partitioning a large network into
smaller networks
• Subnetting is a technique of partitioning an individual physical
network into several small-sized logical sub-networks. These
subnetworks are known as subnets.
• The Subnetting basically convert the host bits into the network bits
31. it can divide its network in four subnets.
same network
after Subnetting.
Without any Subnetting,
all computers will work
in a single large network.
33. Types of Subnetting
Fixed length subnetting also called as classful
subnetting divides the network into subnets where-
•All the subnets are of same size.
•All the subnets have equal number of hosts.
•All the subnets have same subnet mask.
Variable length subnetting also called as classless
subnetting divides the network into subnets where-
•All the subnets are not of same size.
•All the subnets do not have equal number of hosts.
•All the subnets do not have same subnet mask.
34. Step 1 : Identifying network portion and host portion in an IP address
- Subnetting can only be done in host portion.
- Subnet mask is used to distinguish the network portion from host
portion in an IP address.
35. Example-01:
• Consider-
• We have a big single network having IP Address 200.1.2.0.
• We want to do subnetting and divide this network into 2 subnets.
36. • For creating two subnets and to represent their subnet IDs, we require 1
bit.
• So, We borrow one bit from the Host ID part.
• After borrowing one bit, Host ID part remains with only 7 bits.
• If borrowed bit = 0, then it represents the first subnet.
• If borrowed bit = 1, then it represents the second subnet.
• IP Address of the two subnets are-
• 200.1.2.00000000 = 200.1.2.0
• 200.1.2.10000000 = 200.1.2.128
37. For 1st Subnet-
• IP Address of the subnet = 200.1.2.0
• Total number of IP Addresses = 27 = 128
• Total number of hosts that can be configured = 128 – 2(Reserved bits/special
address) = 126
• Range of IP Addresses =
[200.1.2.00000000, 200.1.2.01111111] = [200.1.2.0, 200.1.2.127]
• Direct Broadcast Address = 200.1.2.01111111 = 200.1.2.127
• Limited Broadcast Address = 255.255.255.255
38. For 2nd Subnet-
• IP Address of the subnet = 200.1.2.128
• Total number of IP Addresses = 27 = 128
• Total number of hosts that can be configured = 128 – 2 = 126
• Range of IP Addresses =
[200.1.2.10000000, 200.1.2.11111111] = [200.1.2.128, 200.1.2.255]
• Direct Broadcast Address = 200.1.2.11111111 = 200.1.2.255
• Limited Broadcast Address = 255.255.255.255
39. Example-02:
• Consider-
• We have a big single network having IP Address 200.1.2.0.
• We want to do subnetting and divide this network into 4 subnets.
40. Answer
• Clearly, the given network belongs to class C.
• For creating four subnets and to represent their subnet IDs, we
require 2 bits.
• So,
• We borrow two bits from the Host ID part.
• After borrowing two bits, Host ID part remains with only 6 bits.
41. Answer (cont..)
• If borrowed bits = 00, then it represents the 1st subnet.
• If borrowed bits = 01, then it represents the 2nd subnet.
• If borrowed bits = 10, then it represents the 3rd subnet.
• If borrowed bits = 11, then it represents the 4th subnet.
• IP Address of the four subnets are-
• 200.1.2.00000000 = 200.1.2.0
• 200.1.2.01000000 = 200.1.2.64
• 200.1.2.10000000 = 200.1.2.128
• 200.1.2.11000000 = 200.1.2.192
42. For 1st Subnet-
• IP Address of the subnet = 200.1.2.0
• Total number of IP Addresses = 26 = 64
• Total number of hosts that can be configured = 64 – 2 = 62
• Range of IP Addresses = [200.1.2.00000000, 200.1.2.00111111] =
[200.1.2.0, 200.1.2.63]
• Direct Broadcast Address = 200.1.2.00111111 = 200.1.2.63
• Limited Broadcast Address = 255.255.255.255
43. For 2nd Subnet-
• IP Address of the subnet = 200.1.2.64
• Total number of IP Addresses = 26 = 64
• Total number of hosts that can be configured = 64 – 2 = 62
• Range of IP Addresses = [200.1.2.01000000, 200.1.2.01111111] =
[200.1.2.64, 200.1.2.127]
• Direct Broadcast Address = 200.1.2.01111111 = 200.1.2.127
• Limited Broadcast Address = 255.255.255.255
44. For 3rd Subnet-
• IP Address of the subnet = 200.1.2.128
• Total number of IP Addresses = 26 = 64
• Total number of hosts that can be configured = 64 – 2 = 62
• Range of IP Addresses = [200.1.2.10000000, 200.1.2.10111111] =
[200.1.2.128, 200.1.2.191]
• Direct Broadcast Address = 200.1.2.10111111 = 200.1.2.191
• Limited Broadcast Address = 255.255.255.255
45. For 4th Subnet-
• IP Address of the subnet = 200.1.2.192
• Total number of IP Addresses = 26 = 64
• Total number of hosts that can be configured = 64 – 2 = 62
• Range of IP Addresses = [200.1.2.11000000, 200.1.2.11111111] =
[200.1.2.192, 200.1.2.255]
• Direct Broadcast Address = 200.1.2.11111111 = 200.1.2.255
• Limited Broadcast Address = 255.255.255.255
46. In decimal notation IP address : 192.168.10.10
Subnet mask : 255.255.255.0
In binary notation IP address : 11000000.10101000.00000001.00001010
Subnet mask : 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
On bits (1) represents network address bits(0) represents host address
47. Examples of IP address with subnet mask in decimal format
10.10.10.10
255.0.0.0
172.168.1.1
255.255.0.0
192.168.1.1
255.255.255.0
48. Examples of IP address with subnet mask in binary
format
00001010.00001010.00001010.00001010
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
10101100.10101000.00000001.00000001
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
49. Reserved network bits and host bits cannot be used in Subnetting.
IP
Class
First IP Address
of class
Last IP Address of
class
Default
Subnet Mask
Default
Network bits
Host bits Reserved host
bits
A 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255 255.0.0.0 First 8 bits 9 to 30 31, 32
B 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255 255.255.0.0 First 16 bits 17 to 30 31, 32
C 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255 255.255.255.0 First 24 bits 25 to 30 31, 32
50. Subnetting
For example
• if a network in class A is divided into four subnets, each
subnet has a prefix of nsub = 10.
• At the same time, if all of the addresses in a network are
not used,
• subnetting allows the addresses to be divided among
several organizations.
• to divide a large block into smaller ones
51. Subnetting
• The network is first reached using the netid, and then the specific
host is reached using the hostid.
• This addressing scheme approaches all networks as if they are just
one large network with several hosts
52. need of subnetting
• Hosts on the network could not be organized into groups.
• With this scheme, you could not create separate networks for
departments within an organization.
• All networks would be at the same level. If all hosts were connected
to the same physical network
• bandwidth would be quickly consumed during peak usage hours.
• All users would be sending and receiving over the same cable.
53. In this example, all our hosts are connected to the same
physical network.
54. dividing a large Class B network into three
smaller subnetworks.
55.
56. • The router now knows that the original 142.15.3.0 network has been
subnetted into two smaller subnetworks.
The router interprets IP address information in the following manner:
• The first two bits, or octets, 143.15, are used to define the netid
(143.15.0.0 or 143.15.4.0).
• The third octet is used to define the subnetid (143.15.4.0 or
143.15.5.0).
• The last octet is used to define the hostid—for example, 143.15.5.31.
57. • Netid—Defines the entire site within the organization
• Subnetid—Defines the physical subnetwork
• Hostid—Identifies each host connected to the subnetwork
when IP information is sent to the network from the Internet, three
steps are involved in routing the information:
• The IP packet is delivered to the site (143.15.0.0).
• The packet is forwarded to the correct subnetwork (143.15.4.0 or
143.15.5.0).
• The packet is delivered to the correct host.
58. Class B network with and without subnetting:
Class B network without subnetting
Netid Hostid
143.15 .3.20
Class B network with subnetting
Netid Subnetid Hostid
143.15 .3 .20
59. Subnet masking
• Subnet masking is a process used to extract the physical network
address from an IP address.
• masking may be done whether there is a subnet in place or not.
• If there is no subnet, masking extracts the network address.
• If there is a subnet, masking extracts the subnetwork address.
60. How subnet mask is created
• For example, let’s assume we want to determine the netmask for the
192.168.1.0 network.
• In binary format, 192.168.1.0 is written as:
11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000
61. 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000000
• The three leftmost bits are 110, so we know that this is a Class C
address.
• This means that the first 24 bits are used for the netid and the last 8
bits are used for the hostid.
• To determine the netmask, set all the network bits to 1 and all the
host bits to zero.
• In binary format, this is:
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
• Converted to decimal format, this gives us a netmask of
255.255.255.0.
62. Example
• A network has 10.0.0.0 for the netid.
• In binary format, this address translates to:
00001010.00000000.00000000.00000000
Solution:
• When we set all the network bits to 1 and all the host
bits to 0, we get:
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
• Decimal part : 255.0.0.0
63.
64.
65.
66.
67. Type of subnetting : VLSM & FLSM
• VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) is a technique
which partitions IP address space into subnets of
different sizes and prevent memory wastage.
• when the number of hosts is same in subnets, that is
known as FLSM (Fixed Length Subnet Mask).
68. • Supernetting was devised to make the routing process more
convenient.
• Additionally, it reduces the size of routing table information so that it
could consume less space in the router’s memory.
• to combine several class C blocks into a larger block to be attractive
to organizations that need more than the 256 addresses available in a
class C block
Supernetting
69. Network address and Broadcast address
• In each network there are two special addresses;
• network address and broadcast address.
• Network address represents the network itself while broadcast
address represents all the hosts which belong to it. These two
addresses can’t be assigned to any individual host in network. Since
each subnet represents an individual network, it also uses these
two addresses.
(N-2)
70. Subnetting
• network bits are converted into host bits.
• Subnetting process is performed to slow down the depletion of the IP
addresses.
• It allows the administrator to divide the single class A, class B and class C
into small segments.
• VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask) and
• FLSM (Fixed Length Subnet Mask).
• The process of partitioning the IP address space into a subnet of different
size is called a Variable Length Subnet Mask.
• VLSM reduces the wastage of memory.
• The process of partitioning the IP address space into a subnet of the same
size is called a Fixed Length Subnet Mask.
72. CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)
• It is a supernetting technique where the several subnets are
combined together for the network routing.
• It is scheme used to route the network traffic across the internet.
73. Supernetting
• supernetting is the method used for combining the
smaller ranges of addresses into larger space.
• several networks are merged into a single network
75. Classless Addressing
• To reduce the wastage of IP addresses in a block, we use Classless Addressing
• the classless addressing assigns a block of addresses to the customer according
to its requirement which prevents the wastage of addresses.
• variable-length blocks are used that belong to no classes.
• This block contains the required number of IP Addresses as demanded by the
user.
• The classless IPv4 addressing does not divide the address space into classes like
classful addressing. It provides a variable-length of blocks, which have a range
of addresses according to the need of users.
• This block of IP Addresses is called as a Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR)
block.
76. • The 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits).
• Each octet is converted to decimal and separated by a period (dot).
• The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 decimal, or
00000000 to11111111 binary.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 (128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1=255)
Here is a sample octet conversion when not all of the bits are set to 1.
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 64 0 0 0 0 0 1 (0+64+0+0+0+0+0+1=65)
And this sample shows an IP address represented in both binary and
decimal.
77. Class A network(net ID),node (Host ID),node,node
Class B network,network,node,node
Class C network,network,network,node
In a Class A address : network address of 0.0.0.0 – 255.0.0.0
In a Class B address : network address of 0.0.0.0 – 255.255.0.0
In a Class C address : network address of 0.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.0
78. Variable-Length Blocks
• The whole address space (2^32 addresses) is divided into blocks of
different sizes
• In classless addressing, the whole address space is divided into
variable length blocks.
• Addresses have two parts:
• subnet or prefix, The prefix in an address defines the block (network);
• Host - defines the node (device).
79. • The prefix in an address defines the block (network);
• the suffix defines the node (device).
• Define a block of 2 addresses, is that the number of addresses in a
block needs to be a power of 2.
Classless Addressing
80. Network part (All 1s) Host part (All 0s)
Total no.of host connected in this network = 2 no.of zeros
=216 - 2
(Here 2 is reserved IP and Network IP)
=2¹⁴ = 2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2 = 16384
Network mask (only calculate all 1s) = 255.255.0.0
84. Last bit value add to previous : 32+32
64+32
96+32
128+32
168+32
192+32
224+32 ( 256 – not valid so stop the process )
85. Extracting Information from an Address
• Given any address in the block, to know three pieces of information
about the block to which the address belongs:
1. the number of addresses,
2. the first address in the block, and
3. the last address.
Since the value of prefix length, n, is given, we can
• easily find these three pieces of information,
86. Type 1 Technique:
Extracting Information from an Address
• three pieces of information about the block to which the address belongs:
1. the number of addresses - The number of addresses in the block is found as
N = 232−n
2. the first address in the block - To find the first address, we keep the n
leftmost bits and set the (32 − n) rightmost bits all to 0s.
3. the last address - To find the last address, we keep the n leftmost bits and
set the (32 − n) rightmost bits all to 1s.
87. Example
• A classless address is given as 167.199.170.82/27. We can find the above
three pieces of information as follows.
1. The number of addresses in the network is 232 − n = 232 − 27 = 25 = 32
addresses.
2. Convert 167.199.170.82 into binary values
10100111 11000111 10101010 01010010
To fine First address: 167.199.170.64/27
10100111 11000111 10101010 01000000
88. 3. The last address can be found by keeping the first 27 bits and changing the
rest of the bits to 1s.
Address: 167.199.170.82/27 10100111 11000111 10101010 01011111
Last address: 167.199.170.95/27 10100111 11000111 10101010 01011111
89. Type 2 : Address Mask
• Another way to find the first and last addresses in the block is to use
the address mask.
• The address mask is a 32-bit number in which the n leftmost bits are
set to 1s and the rest of the bits (32 - n) are set to 0s.
• A computer can easily find the address mask because it is the
complement of (2(32 - n) - 1).
90. Address Mask
• Another way to find the first and last addresses in the block is to use the
address mask.
• find the address mask because it is the complement of (232 − n − 1).
• 1. The number of addresses in the block N = NOT (mask) + 1.
• 2. The first address in the block = (Any address in the block) AND (mask).
• 3. The last address in the block = (Any address in the block) OR [(NOT (mask)].
91. Network Address and Mask
Network address – It identifies a network on internet.
• Using this, we can find range of addresses in the network and total
possible number of hosts in the network.
Mask – It is a 32-bit binary number that gives the network address in
the address block
The default mask in different classes are :
• Class A – 255.0.0.0
• Class B – 255.255.0.0
• Class C – 255.255.255.0
92. Address Mask
• The reason for defining a mask in this way is that it can be
used by a computer program to extract the information in
a block, using the three bit-wise operations NOT, AND,
and OR.
1. The number of addresses in the block N = NOT (mask) +
1.
2. The first address in the block = (Any address in the
block) AND (mask).
3. The last address in the block = (Any address in the
block) OR [(NOT (mask)].
93. Address Mask
• A classless address is given as 167.199.170.82/27.
• We can find the above three pieces of information
using the mask.
• The mask in dotted-decimal notation is
256.256.256.224.
• The AND, OR, and NOT operations can be applied to
individual bytes
94. • Number of addresses in the block: N = NOT (mask) + 1
= 00000000 00000000 00000000 00011111
= 0.0.0.31 + 1 = 32 addresses
First address:167.199.170.64
First = (address) AND (mask)
10100111 11000111 10101010 01010010
11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000
--------------------------------------------------------
10100111 11000111 10101010 01000000
---------------------------------------------------------
Last address: 167.199.170.95
Last = (address) OR (NOT mask) = 167.199.170.255
10100111 11000111 10101010 01010010
00000000 00000000 00000000 00011111
--------------------------------------------------------
10100111 11000111 10101010 01011111
--------------------------------------------------------
97. Example : Block Allocation
• An organization is granted a block of addresses with the beginning
address 14.24.74.0/24. The organization needs to have 3 subblocks of
addresses to use in its three subnets: one subblock of 10 addresses,
one subblock of 60 addresses, and one subblock of 120 addresses.
Design the subblocks.
98. Solution
• There are 2 32 – 24 = 256 addresses in this block.
• The first address is 14.24.74.0/24;
• the last address is 14.24.74.255/24.
• To satisfy the third requirement, we assign addresses to subblocks,
starting with the largest and ending with the smallest one.
99. • The number of addresses in the largest subblock, which requires 120
addresses, is not a power of 2. We allocate 128 addresses.
• The subnet mask for this subnet can be found as n1 = 32 - log2128 =
25.
• The first address in this block is 14.24.74.0/25; the last address is
14.24.74.127/25
100. • The number of addresses in the second largest subblock,
which requires 60 addresses, is not a power of 2 either.
• We allocate 64 addresses. The subnet mask for this
subnet can be found as n2 = 32 - log264 = 26.
• The first address in this block is 14.24.74.128/26;
• the last address is 14.24.74.191/26
101. • The number of addresses in the smallest subblock, which
requires 10 addresses, is not a power of 2 either. We
allocate 16 addresses. The subnet mask for this subnet
can be found as
• n3 = 32 - log216 = 28.
• The first address in this block is 14.24.74.192/28;
• the last address is 14.24.74.207/28.
If we add all addresses in the previous subblocks, the result
is 208 addresses,
• Which means 48 addresses are left in reserve. The first
address in this range is 14.24.74.208.
• The last address is 14.24.74.255.
102.
103. Special Addresses
• This-host Address : 0.0.0.0/32 is called the this-host address(It is
used whenever
• a host needs to send an IP datagram but it does not know its own
address to use as the source address.
104. Limited-broadcast Address
• The only address in the block 255.255.255.255/32 is called the
limited-broadcast address.
• It is used whenever a router or a host needs to send a datagram to all
devices in a network.
• The routers in the network, however, block the packet having this
address as the destination;
• the packet cannot travel outside the network.
105. Loopback Address
• The block 127.0.0.0/8 is called the loopback address.
• A packet with one of the addresses in this block as the
destination address never leaves the host; it will remain
in the host. Any address in the block is used to test a
piece of software in the machine.
For
• example, we can write a client and a server program in
which one of the addresses in the block is used as the
server address.
• We can test the programs using the same host to see if
they work before running them on different computers
106. Private Addresses
• Four blocks are assigned as private addresses:
10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, 192.168.0.0/16, and
169.254.0.0/16.
108. Comparison
Basis for comparison Subnetting Supernetting
Basic
A process of dividing a network
into subnetworks.
A process of combining
small networks into a larger
network.
Procedure
The number of bits of network
addresses is increased.
The number of bits of host
addresses is increased.
Mask bits are moved
towards
Right of the default mask. Left of the default mask.
Implementation
VLSM (Variable-length subnet
masking).
CIDR (Classless
interdomain routing).
Purpose
Used to reduce the address
depletion.
To simplify and fasten the
routing process
109. Consider the following subnet masks-
• 255.0.0.0
• 255.128.0.0
• 255.192.0.0
• 255.240.0.0
• 255.255.0.0
• 255.255.254.0
• 255.255.255.0
• 255.255.255.224
• 225.255.255.240
For each subnet mask, find-
1. Number of hosts per subnet
2. Number of subnets if subnet mask belongs to class A
3. Number of subnets if subnet mask belongs to class B
4. Number of subnets if subnet mask belongs to class C
5. Number of subnets if total 10 bits are used for the
global network ID
110. Given subnet mask is 255.0.0.0
Q1:
• Number of Net ID bits + Number of Subnet ID bits = 8
• Number of Host ID bits = 24
Q2:
• Since number of Host ID bits = 24,
• So Number of hosts per subnet = 224 – 2
111. Q3:
• If the given subnet mask belongs to class A, then
number of Net ID bits = 8.
• Substituting in the above equation, we get-
• Number of Subnet ID bits = 8 – 8 = 0
• Thus, there will be only one single network
Q4:
• First two octets of the subnet mask are not
completely filled with 1’s.
• So, given subnet mask can not belong to class B.
112. Q5:
• First three octets of the subnet mask are not
completely filled with 1’s.
• So, given subnet mask can not belong to class C.
Q6:
• First 10 bits of the subnet mask are not completely
filled with 1’s.
• So, given subnet mask can not use 10 bits for the
Network ID.
113. Example :
• Given IP address 132.6.17.85 and default class B mask, find the
beginning address (network address).
114. Solution :
• The default mask is 255.255.0.0,
• which means that the only the first 2 bytes are preserved and the
other 2 bytes are set to 0.
• Therefore, the network address is 132.6.0.0.
117. Method 1 : Example
• A classless address is given as 167.199.170.82/27.
• We can find the above three pieces of information as
follows.
1. The number of addresses in the network is 232 - n
• = 25 = 32 addresses.
118. 2. To find the first address
• The first address can be found by keeping the first 27 bits
and changing the rest of the bits to 0s.
• Address: 167.199.170.82/27
• 10100111 11000111 10101010 01010010
• First address: 167.199.170.64/27
• 10100111 11000111 10101010 01000000
119. 3.The last address
• The last address can be found by keeping the first 27
bits and changing the rest of the bits to 1s.
• Address: 167.199.170.82/27
• 10100111 11000111 10101010 01011111
• Last address: 167.199.170.95/27
• 10100111 11000111 10101010 01011111