Microprocessors are electronic circuits that function as the central processing unit (CPU) of computers and other electronic devices. They incorporate arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry to perform computational tasks. Early microprocessors from the 1970s contained only a few thousand transistors, while modern microprocessors can contain over a billion transistors. Microprocessors are manufactured using complex semiconductor fabrication techniques involving deposition and etching of thin layers to build up the transistor circuits. They are key components that power all modern computers and many other electronic devices.
The document traces the history and development of microprocessors from 1971 to the present. It begins with the Intel 4004, the first commercial microprocessor released in 1971. Important subsequent microprocessors included the Intel 8080 in 1974 and 8085 in 1977. The Pentium brand was introduced in 1993 and included 64-bit x86 instruction sets. The Core 2 brand from 2006 featured single, dual, and quad-core processors. The document also provides basic explanations of how microprocessors work and their components like the ALU, registers, and control unit.
This document provides a historical overview of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to 2002. It describes the key specifications and improvements of each generation, including the 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086/8088, 80186, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, and Pentium IV microprocessors. The evolution of microprocessors progressed from 4-bit to 8-bit to 16-bit and 32-bit designs, with increasing memory capacity, clock speed, and additional features like memory management and floating point support.
This document discusses microprocessors and networking. It provides details on microprocessors such as their components like the ALU, registers and control unit. It describes early microprocessors like the 4004 and 8085. It also discusses microprocessor memory, buses and different types of integrated circuits. The document also defines what a computer network is and the different ways of physically connecting computers through guided media like coaxial cable, twisted pair and fiber optic cable. It explains wireless connections using infrared, radio frequency and microwave communications.
This document provides an overview of microprocessors. It discusses that a microprocessor is a clock driven semiconductor device manufactured using LSI or VLSI techniques. It can be divided into an arithmetic logic unit, register array, and control unit. Memory stores binary instructions and data for the microprocessor. Input/output devices allow communication with external components via a system bus. The document also discusses microprocessor architecture, languages like assembly and machine code, and provides details on the 8085 microprocessor from Intel including its address bus, data bus and control bus.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessors over five generations from 1971 to present. The first generation used PMOS technology and included 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004. The second generation used NMOS technology and had 8-bit processors like the Intel 8080. The third generation used 16-bit processors made with HMOS technology like the Intel 8086. Fourth generation processors were 32-bit like the Intel 80486 and used HCMOS technology. The latest fifth generation includes advanced 32-bit processors like Intel Pentium that can execute multiple instructions per clock cycle and achieve processing speeds over 3GHz.
The document provides an overview of microprocessors and microcontrollers. It discusses the history of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors to modern 64-bit processors. A microprocessor contains a central processing unit while a microcontroller contains additional components like memory and input/output interfaces integrated into a single chip. Microcontrollers require less external hardware than microprocessors. The document describes the basic architecture of microprocessors and microcontrollers including components like registers, buses, and memory. It compares the von Neumann and Harvard architectures. Interrupts and memory-mapped I/O are also discussed.
A presentation on Evaluation of MicroprocessorShah Imtiyaj
This presentation summarizes the historical background of several major microprocessor companies, including Intel, IBM, AMD, and MIPS Technology. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors like the Intel 4004 to more advanced 8-bit and 64-bit processors. For each company, it outlines some of the most notable microprocessor models released over the years, along with key details about their specifications and impact. The presentation concludes that the microprocessor has transformed computing and undergone rapid advancement from its initial conception to today's high-powered multiprocessor systems.
The document summarizes the Intel 80386 microprocessor, which was introduced in 1985. It discusses the key features and architecture of both the 80386DX and 80386SX versions. The 80386 was Intel's first 32-bit microprocessor and supported addressing up to 4GB of physical memory and 64TB of virtual memory using segmentation and paging. It had several operating modes and instruction sets to support multitasking and memory protection in protected mode.
The document traces the history and development of microprocessors from 1971 to the present. It begins with the Intel 4004, the first commercial microprocessor released in 1971. Important subsequent microprocessors included the Intel 8080 in 1974 and 8085 in 1977. The Pentium brand was introduced in 1993 and included 64-bit x86 instruction sets. The Core 2 brand from 2006 featured single, dual, and quad-core processors. The document also provides basic explanations of how microprocessors work and their components like the ALU, registers, and control unit.
This document provides a historical overview of Intel microprocessors from 1971 to 2002. It describes the key specifications and improvements of each generation, including the 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086/8088, 80186, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, and Pentium IV microprocessors. The evolution of microprocessors progressed from 4-bit to 8-bit to 16-bit and 32-bit designs, with increasing memory capacity, clock speed, and additional features like memory management and floating point support.
This document discusses microprocessors and networking. It provides details on microprocessors such as their components like the ALU, registers and control unit. It describes early microprocessors like the 4004 and 8085. It also discusses microprocessor memory, buses and different types of integrated circuits. The document also defines what a computer network is and the different ways of physically connecting computers through guided media like coaxial cable, twisted pair and fiber optic cable. It explains wireless connections using infrared, radio frequency and microwave communications.
This document provides an overview of microprocessors. It discusses that a microprocessor is a clock driven semiconductor device manufactured using LSI or VLSI techniques. It can be divided into an arithmetic logic unit, register array, and control unit. Memory stores binary instructions and data for the microprocessor. Input/output devices allow communication with external components via a system bus. The document also discusses microprocessor architecture, languages like assembly and machine code, and provides details on the 8085 microprocessor from Intel including its address bus, data bus and control bus.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessors over five generations from 1971 to present. The first generation used PMOS technology and included 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004. The second generation used NMOS technology and had 8-bit processors like the Intel 8080. The third generation used 16-bit processors made with HMOS technology like the Intel 8086. Fourth generation processors were 32-bit like the Intel 80486 and used HCMOS technology. The latest fifth generation includes advanced 32-bit processors like Intel Pentium that can execute multiple instructions per clock cycle and achieve processing speeds over 3GHz.
The document provides an overview of microprocessors and microcontrollers. It discusses the history of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors to modern 64-bit processors. A microprocessor contains a central processing unit while a microcontroller contains additional components like memory and input/output interfaces integrated into a single chip. Microcontrollers require less external hardware than microprocessors. The document describes the basic architecture of microprocessors and microcontrollers including components like registers, buses, and memory. It compares the von Neumann and Harvard architectures. Interrupts and memory-mapped I/O are also discussed.
A presentation on Evaluation of MicroprocessorShah Imtiyaj
This presentation summarizes the historical background of several major microprocessor companies, including Intel, IBM, AMD, and MIPS Technology. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors like the Intel 4004 to more advanced 8-bit and 64-bit processors. For each company, it outlines some of the most notable microprocessor models released over the years, along with key details about their specifications and impact. The presentation concludes that the microprocessor has transformed computing and undergone rapid advancement from its initial conception to today's high-powered multiprocessor systems.
The document summarizes the Intel 80386 microprocessor, which was introduced in 1985. It discusses the key features and architecture of both the 80386DX and 80386SX versions. The 80386 was Intel's first 32-bit microprocessor and supported addressing up to 4GB of physical memory and 64TB of virtual memory using segmentation and paging. It had several operating modes and instruction sets to support multitasking and memory protection in protected mode.
The document discusses the Intel 80286 microprocessor. It introduces the 80286 as a 16-bit microprocessor introduced in 1982 with separate address and data buses. It had approximately 134,000 transistors and clock speeds up to 12.5 MHz. The 80286 supported both real and protected virtual addressing modes, advanced memory management, and was compatible with the 8086 instruction set. It had features like 4-level memory protection and could address up to 16MB of physical memory or 1GB of virtual memory.
The PIC microcontroller uses a Harvard architecture with separate program and data memories. It has a CPU with an ALU, memory unit, and control unit. The memory includes program memory to store instructions, data memory including registers for temporary data storage, and EEPROM for storing variables. It has advantages like a small instruction set, low cost, and built-in interfaces like I2C, SPI, and analog components.
The microprocessor has evolved significantly since the Intel 4004 was introduced in 1971. Early microprocessors had 4-bit architectures with limited memory addressing. Throughout the 1970s, 8-bit microprocessors became prominent with expanded addressing. In the 1980s, 16-bit and 32-bit processors allowed for greater memory and improved performance. Modern multicore 64-bit processors can have dozens of cores and address petabytes of memory.
The 80386 microprocessor was Intel's 32-bit processor introduced in 1985. It had several improvements over the 80286 including a 32-bit external data bus, increased virtual memory support up to 4GB using segmentation and paging, and faster instruction execution via parallel pipelining. The 80386 came in two versions - the 80386DX with a full 32-bit external data bus, and the lower-cost 80386SX which had a 16-bit data bus. It found use in personal computers and some embedded applications like early mobile phones and spacecraft due to its power and multitasking capabilities.
The document discusses the Intel 80286 microprocessor. It was introduced in 1982 as the 5th generation of Intel's x86 family. It had several improvements over the 8086 including a faster clock speed of 12.5MHz, more transistors at 125K, and an advanced memory management system. The 80286 could address up to 16MB of memory and had two operating modes: real address mode for compatibility and protected virtual address mode for multitasking. It also introduced the ability to use virtual memory in protected mode.
Evolution of microprocessors and 80486 Microprocessor.Ritwik MG
The document discusses the evolution of Intel x86 microprocessors from 80186 to 80486. It describes the key features and improvements introduced in each generation, including additional instructions, memory management capabilities, and on-chip cache in 80486. The 80486 is a 32-bit processor compatible with 80386 with enhanced performance due to its highly integrated design and 8KB internal cache. It has the same 4GB memory address space and register set as 80386 but provides faster execution through fewer clock cycles and additional instructions.
This document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from the 4004 in 1971 to the Pentium 4 in 2001. It describes each processor model, highlighting their key characteristics like transistor count, clock speed, and architectural improvements. Over 30 years there was a 104x increase in transistor count and clock frequency, showing the exponential growth in computing power and scaling of Intel's microprocessor technology.
The microprocessor is a central processing unit contained on a single chip. It acts as the brain of the computer and controls all other components. As technology has advanced, microprocessors have become faster, smaller, and more powerful over time. A computer uses a microprocessor as its CPU and is called a microcomputer. The microprocessor accepts data from input devices, processes it according to instructions in memory, and outputs results.
The document is a presentation on an introduction to microprocessors. It defines a microprocessor as an electronic circuit that functions as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. It then discusses the main components and architecture of a microprocessor, including the timing and control unit, arithmetic logic unit, interface section, and register section. It provides examples of the 8085 microprocessor pin diagram and block diagram to illustrate these sections.
Introduction of Motorola microprocessors
Designers
Motorola microprocessor family
Motorola 6800 Microprocessor Family
Variations of 6800
Motorola 680x0 Microprocessor Family
Motorola PowerPC Family
Features of MC6800 Microprocessor
Memory of MC6800 Microprocessor
About microcontroller and why should I learn and daily life uses and history of microcontroller and manufacturing companies of microcontroller and learn
The document discusses the internal architecture of the Intel 8086 microprocessor. It describes the main components of the 8086 including the Bus Interface Unit (BIU) and Execution Unit (EU). It also covers the memory organization of the 8086, including the use of separate memory segments for code, data, stack, and extra segments. The Flag Register contained within the EU is also described, which stores condition and control bits used during instruction execution.
The document discusses the history and basics of microprocessors. It begins by defining a microprocessor as a multipurpose programmable device that incorporates the functions of a CPU onto a single integrated circuit. It then discusses the timeline of early microprocessors from the Intel 4004 in 1971 to the development of 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, and 64-bit microprocessors. The document also categorizes microprocessors based on instruction sets and data streams, and lists common uses of microprocessors in control units, instruments, computers, and other applications.
This presentation summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from mechanical to electrical to microprocessor ages. It discusses early mechanical calculators like the abacus. The first electronic computers included the Z3 in 1941 and ENIAC in 1946. Major early microprocessors included the Intel 4004 in 1971, the first microchip. Later microprocessors like the Intel 8085, 8086, 80386, 80486 and Pentium increased processing power and memory capacity. The presentation provides details on the specifications and impact of these processors in driving technology forward.
The document discusses the architecture of the 8085 microprocessor. It describes the main components of a processor system including the CPU, ALU, registers, memory and I/O interfaces. It then provides details on the internal architecture of the 8085 CPU, describing its registers including the program counter, accumulator, flags register and stack pointer. It also explains the address bus, data bus and control bus and how the 8085 uses time-sharing of address/data lines.
This document provides an overview of microprocessors and microcontrollers. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from discrete components to integrated circuits. The key components of a microprocessor like the CPU, ALU, and memory are described. Microcontroller fundamentals like PIC microcontrollers and their architecture are also covered. Common applications of microprocessors and microcontrollers are in devices like appliances, automobiles, and industrial control systems. Leading manufacturers of microprocessors and microcontrollers are mentioned.
This presentation was made for the subject of computer architecture and organisation for the understanding of evolution of microprocessors and their configurations
The document provides an introduction to the 8085 microprocessor, including its evolution from earlier Intel microprocessors like the 4004 and key concepts like the stored program concept. It discusses the three major parts of a computer system - the CPU, memory unit, and I/O devices. The 8085 uses a three bus system architecture with an address bus, data bus, and control bus to transfer information. A block diagram shows a typical microprocessor-based computer system.
The document provides an overview of microprocessors, including what they are, their basic components and functions. It discusses how a microprocessor:
- Acts as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer to provide computational control
- Can be programmed to perform functions on data by writing instructions into its memory
- Has components like an arithmetic logic unit, registers, cache memory and bus interfaces to transfer data and addresses
This document provides an introduction to microcontrollers and embedded systems. It defines embedded systems as specialized electronic devices that perform dedicated functions. Microcontrollers are described as computer systems on a single chip that contain a processor, memory, and input/output peripherals. Popular microcontroller examples include the 8051, PIC, and 68HC05. The document outlines the differences between microprocessors and microcontrollers, noting that microcontrollers have integrated memory and peripherals, require less external hardware, and have specialized instruction sets.
The document discusses the architecture of microprocessors, specifically the 8085 microprocessor. It describes the three busses (address, data, control) used by the 8085 and how they function. It then explains the internal architecture of the 8085 including registers like the program counter and stack pointer. Finally, it discusses memory organization and how the microprocessor accesses and reads/writes to memory locations.
The document discusses the Intel 80286 microprocessor. It introduces the 80286 as a 16-bit microprocessor introduced in 1982 with separate address and data buses. It had approximately 134,000 transistors and clock speeds up to 12.5 MHz. The 80286 supported both real and protected virtual addressing modes, advanced memory management, and was compatible with the 8086 instruction set. It had features like 4-level memory protection and could address up to 16MB of physical memory or 1GB of virtual memory.
The PIC microcontroller uses a Harvard architecture with separate program and data memories. It has a CPU with an ALU, memory unit, and control unit. The memory includes program memory to store instructions, data memory including registers for temporary data storage, and EEPROM for storing variables. It has advantages like a small instruction set, low cost, and built-in interfaces like I2C, SPI, and analog components.
The microprocessor has evolved significantly since the Intel 4004 was introduced in 1971. Early microprocessors had 4-bit architectures with limited memory addressing. Throughout the 1970s, 8-bit microprocessors became prominent with expanded addressing. In the 1980s, 16-bit and 32-bit processors allowed for greater memory and improved performance. Modern multicore 64-bit processors can have dozens of cores and address petabytes of memory.
The 80386 microprocessor was Intel's 32-bit processor introduced in 1985. It had several improvements over the 80286 including a 32-bit external data bus, increased virtual memory support up to 4GB using segmentation and paging, and faster instruction execution via parallel pipelining. The 80386 came in two versions - the 80386DX with a full 32-bit external data bus, and the lower-cost 80386SX which had a 16-bit data bus. It found use in personal computers and some embedded applications like early mobile phones and spacecraft due to its power and multitasking capabilities.
The document discusses the Intel 80286 microprocessor. It was introduced in 1982 as the 5th generation of Intel's x86 family. It had several improvements over the 8086 including a faster clock speed of 12.5MHz, more transistors at 125K, and an advanced memory management system. The 80286 could address up to 16MB of memory and had two operating modes: real address mode for compatibility and protected virtual address mode for multitasking. It also introduced the ability to use virtual memory in protected mode.
Evolution of microprocessors and 80486 Microprocessor.Ritwik MG
The document discusses the evolution of Intel x86 microprocessors from 80186 to 80486. It describes the key features and improvements introduced in each generation, including additional instructions, memory management capabilities, and on-chip cache in 80486. The 80486 is a 32-bit processor compatible with 80386 with enhanced performance due to its highly integrated design and 8KB internal cache. It has the same 4GB memory address space and register set as 80386 but provides faster execution through fewer clock cycles and additional instructions.
This document traces the evolution of Intel microprocessors from the 4004 in 1971 to the Pentium 4 in 2001. It describes each processor model, highlighting their key characteristics like transistor count, clock speed, and architectural improvements. Over 30 years there was a 104x increase in transistor count and clock frequency, showing the exponential growth in computing power and scaling of Intel's microprocessor technology.
The microprocessor is a central processing unit contained on a single chip. It acts as the brain of the computer and controls all other components. As technology has advanced, microprocessors have become faster, smaller, and more powerful over time. A computer uses a microprocessor as its CPU and is called a microcomputer. The microprocessor accepts data from input devices, processes it according to instructions in memory, and outputs results.
The document is a presentation on an introduction to microprocessors. It defines a microprocessor as an electronic circuit that functions as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. It then discusses the main components and architecture of a microprocessor, including the timing and control unit, arithmetic logic unit, interface section, and register section. It provides examples of the 8085 microprocessor pin diagram and block diagram to illustrate these sections.
Introduction of Motorola microprocessors
Designers
Motorola microprocessor family
Motorola 6800 Microprocessor Family
Variations of 6800
Motorola 680x0 Microprocessor Family
Motorola PowerPC Family
Features of MC6800 Microprocessor
Memory of MC6800 Microprocessor
About microcontroller and why should I learn and daily life uses and history of microcontroller and manufacturing companies of microcontroller and learn
The document discusses the internal architecture of the Intel 8086 microprocessor. It describes the main components of the 8086 including the Bus Interface Unit (BIU) and Execution Unit (EU). It also covers the memory organization of the 8086, including the use of separate memory segments for code, data, stack, and extra segments. The Flag Register contained within the EU is also described, which stores condition and control bits used during instruction execution.
The document discusses the history and basics of microprocessors. It begins by defining a microprocessor as a multipurpose programmable device that incorporates the functions of a CPU onto a single integrated circuit. It then discusses the timeline of early microprocessors from the Intel 4004 in 1971 to the development of 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, and 64-bit microprocessors. The document also categorizes microprocessors based on instruction sets and data streams, and lists common uses of microprocessors in control units, instruments, computers, and other applications.
This presentation summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from mechanical to electrical to microprocessor ages. It discusses early mechanical calculators like the abacus. The first electronic computers included the Z3 in 1941 and ENIAC in 1946. Major early microprocessors included the Intel 4004 in 1971, the first microchip. Later microprocessors like the Intel 8085, 8086, 80386, 80486 and Pentium increased processing power and memory capacity. The presentation provides details on the specifications and impact of these processors in driving technology forward.
The document discusses the architecture of the 8085 microprocessor. It describes the main components of a processor system including the CPU, ALU, registers, memory and I/O interfaces. It then provides details on the internal architecture of the 8085 CPU, describing its registers including the program counter, accumulator, flags register and stack pointer. It also explains the address bus, data bus and control bus and how the 8085 uses time-sharing of address/data lines.
This document provides an overview of microprocessors and microcontrollers. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from discrete components to integrated circuits. The key components of a microprocessor like the CPU, ALU, and memory are described. Microcontroller fundamentals like PIC microcontrollers and their architecture are also covered. Common applications of microprocessors and microcontrollers are in devices like appliances, automobiles, and industrial control systems. Leading manufacturers of microprocessors and microcontrollers are mentioned.
This presentation was made for the subject of computer architecture and organisation for the understanding of evolution of microprocessors and their configurations
The document provides an introduction to the 8085 microprocessor, including its evolution from earlier Intel microprocessors like the 4004 and key concepts like the stored program concept. It discusses the three major parts of a computer system - the CPU, memory unit, and I/O devices. The 8085 uses a three bus system architecture with an address bus, data bus, and control bus to transfer information. A block diagram shows a typical microprocessor-based computer system.
The document provides an overview of microprocessors, including what they are, their basic components and functions. It discusses how a microprocessor:
- Acts as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer to provide computational control
- Can be programmed to perform functions on data by writing instructions into its memory
- Has components like an arithmetic logic unit, registers, cache memory and bus interfaces to transfer data and addresses
This document provides an introduction to microcontrollers and embedded systems. It defines embedded systems as specialized electronic devices that perform dedicated functions. Microcontrollers are described as computer systems on a single chip that contain a processor, memory, and input/output peripherals. Popular microcontroller examples include the 8051, PIC, and 68HC05. The document outlines the differences between microprocessors and microcontrollers, noting that microcontrollers have integrated memory and peripherals, require less external hardware, and have specialized instruction sets.
The document discusses the architecture of microprocessors, specifically the 8085 microprocessor. It describes the three busses (address, data, control) used by the 8085 and how they function. It then explains the internal architecture of the 8085 including registers like the program counter and stack pointer. Finally, it discusses memory organization and how the microprocessor accesses and reads/writes to memory locations.
The document discusses the microprocessor 8085. It covers the following topics over 5 weeks: basic concepts of microprocessors, the architecture of the 8085, addressing modes and instruction set, interrupts, and peripherals. The 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor that uses 246 bit patterns to form its 74 instruction set. An assembly language uses mnemonics like "INR A" to represent instructions, making programs easier for humans to understand compared to machine language.
this presentation is a great to deliver in classrooms, stage or also can be used to deliver lecture on "Evolution of processor".
it is also very helpful to learn about microprocessor, directly we can say its a self pack containing all about microprocessor.
this ppt contains evolution not only on the basis of generations but also on the basis of their invention.
must gothrough it
The document traces the history and specifications of Intel microprocessors from 1969 to 2011. It begins with the Intel 4004, the world's first microprocessor from 1969, and details the introduction of subsequent chips including the 8008, 8080, 8086, 286, 386, 486, Pentium, Core i3, Core i5, and Core i7 lines. Key specifications like clock speed, number of transistors, register size, and data bus are provided for each generation as processing capabilities increased significantly over the decades.
The document discusses microprocessors and their evolution over time. It begins with definitions of key terms like microprocessor, microcontroller, and the differences between them. It then covers the internal organization of a microprocessor including the ALU, registers, control unit, and memory. Examples of early microprocessors like the Intel 8080 and 8088 are provided along with a table showing their increasing transistor counts, clock speeds, and performance over generations from the 1970s to the late 1990s.
The document traces the evolution of Intel processors from 4-bit to modern 64-bit processors. It discusses the key developments including the 4004 (1971), the first commercial microprocessor, the 8086 (1978) which introduced the x86 architecture, the 80386 (1985) which was the first 32-bit processor, and the Core i7 (2008) which is one of Intel's top consumer processors today. The document highlights increasing transistor counts, clock speeds, memory addressing and capabilities with each generation to show Intel's leadership in driving the advancement of microprocessor technology over the past 50 years.
The document discusses the 8085 microprocessor. It describes that the 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor that can address 64KB of memory using 40 pins that operate at 5V with a maximum frequency of 3MHz. It has registers, ALU, instruction decoder, address buffer and other functional blocks. The registers include general purpose registers, temporary registers, flags register and program counter and stack pointer. The document also discusses the addressing modes, instruction formats and types of instructions of the 8085 microprocessor.
8085 Paper Presentation slides,ppt,microprocessor 8085 ,guide, instruction setSaumitra Rukmangad
The document provides information about the 8085 microprocessor. It describes the 8085 as an 8-bit processor with 40 pins that can access 64KB of memory and 256 I/O ports. It has 5 hardware interrupts, 8 general purpose registers including the program counter and stack pointer, and provides 74 instructions across 5 addressing modes.
A microprocessor is a central processing unit that contains a complete computation engine on a single chip. It executes machine instructions to perform arithmetic operations, move data between memory locations, and make decisions by jumping to different instruction sets. A microprocessor contains registers for temporary storage of data, addresses, and processor status. There are different types of registers including general purpose, floating point, constant, vector, and special purpose registers that store program state information. Control and status registers include the program counter, instruction register, and program status word.
This document discusses the history and evolution of microprocessors over four generations from 1971 to present. It focuses on 8-bit microprocessors, which are most common in sensor and actuator systems. Key features of 8-bit microprocessors discussed include word length, memory addressing, clock speeds, input/output pins, timers, and programmability. Microprocessors provide flexible programmable control and can be configured by engineers for various tasks.
The document discusses the history and applications of microprocessors. It begins with an informal definition of a microprocessor as the "brain" of a computer contained on a single chip. It then discusses how microprocessors can be found in general purpose computers, embedded systems, and special purpose devices. The history section outlines some of the earliest and most advanced microprocessors developed by Intel, from the 4004 in 1971 to the Pentium 4 in the early 2000s, showing the rapid increase in capabilities. The document concludes by discussing the basic components and architecture of microprocessor systems.
The document discusses the system clock generator or clock generator (8284A) used in microprocessor-based systems. It provides definitions and explanations of key terms:
1. The system clock generator (8284A) produces a timing signal (clock signal) using a crystal oscillator to synchronize operations of the microprocessor.
2. It discusses the clock signal frequency, voltage characteristics and timing diagrams. The block diagram and pin configurations of the 8284A chip are also explained.
3. The clock generator divides the crystal frequency to produce the CPU clock signal (CLK) and peripheral clock signal (PCLK) to synchronize different components in the system.
The document discusses control systems in automobiles, specifically focusing on electronic control units (ECUs) and knock sensors. It provides details on how ECUs act as the "brain" of a vehicle by collecting sensor data to control engine functions like fuel injection and spark timing. Knock sensors detect engine knocking through vibrations and send signals to the ECU to optimize ignition timing and prevent damage. Microcontrollers play an important role in both ECUs and knock sensors to process signals and precisely manage engine performance and emissions.
The document discusses the applications of microprocessors. It explains that microprocessors are used as the central processing unit in microcomputers to perform computing tasks and make decisions. Microprocessors are commonly used in embedded systems and reactive systems to control external hardware and events in applications like consumer electronics, home appliances, automotive systems, medical instrumentation, industrial automation, communication devices, and more. The document provides examples of microprocessors being used for functions like speed control of motors, traffic light control, instrument measurement, appliance operation, building automation, and other control systems.
This document provides an overview of microprocessors and the 8085 microprocessor. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from early business calculators and home computers to modern devices. It then describes the internal architecture of the 8085 microprocessor, including its functional blocks like the ALU, registers, flags, and buses. Finally, it outlines the five generations of microprocessors and provides details on the pin configuration and functions of the 8085 microprocessor.
This document discusses the PUSH, POP, PUSHF, and POPF instructions in x86 assembly. It explains that PUSH decrements the stack pointer and copies data onto the stack, while POP increments the stack pointer and copies data off the stack. PUSHF pushes the flags register onto the stack, while POPF pops the flags register off the stack. It provides examples of using these instructions and diagrams illustrating how the stack and stack pointer are affected.
A microprocessor is a computer processor contained on a microchip. It contains the central processing unit (CPU) and performs arithmetic and logic operations. Microprocessors have evolved over generations from processing instructions serially to employing super scalar processing with over 10 million transistors. They are used in devices like computers, phones, and traffic lights to process instructions and control functions. The internal architecture of microprocessors like the Intel 8086 contains a bus interface unit that handles data transfer and an execution unit that decodes instructions and performs arithmetic logic operations.
The microprocessor is a chip that processes data using built-in transistors and cache. Microprocessors come in different types like CISC and RISC based on the number of instructions. Intel Pentium microprocessors power everyday applications while Intel Celeron microprocessors are more economical. Microprocessors connect to the motherboard via different sockets and slots and can be configured, upgraded, and troubleshot.
The microprocessor is an integrated circuit that functions as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. It contains millions of transistors configured as thousands of individual digital circuits that each perform specific logic functions. A clock signal directs the circuits to perform calculations very quickly, with speed depending on the microprocessor's clock frequency. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004 from 1971, and they have since incorporated exponentially increasing numbers of transistors following Moore's Law.
This document provides a history of computer systems from first to fourth generation computers. It describes the key characteristics of each generation including the technologies used for memory and processing. It then classifies different types of computer systems including supercomputers, mainframes, mini-computers, personal computers, and workstation computers. For each type, it outlines their typical uses, sizes, and other distinguishing features.
The document discusses the evolution of computers from mechanical calculators to modern devices. It covers the development of early computers using vacuum tubes and transistors, as well as the advent of integrated circuits, microprocessors, and microcontrollers. Computers are also classified according to attributes like price and performance, as well as by usage in embedded systems, personal computers, workstations, servers, mainframes, and supercomputers.
This document introduces the Atmel AVR microcontroller series. It discusses that microcontrollers are increasingly being used in consumer electronics and vehicles. The AVR is a popular microcontroller produced by Atmel that follows a RISC architecture. It distinguishes between microprocessors, microcomputers, and microcontrollers, defining microcontrollers as having CPU, memory, and I/O on a single chip. The AVR has features like various peripherals and in-system programmability that make it suitable for many applications. The book is organized into sections covering the AVR, system design using AVR, and sample applications.
AN OVERVIEW OF MICROPROCESSORS AND ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMINGDarian Pruitt
The document provides an overview of microprocessors and assembly language programming. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit designs to modern 64-bit designs containing millions of transistors. It describes the basic components of a microprocessor including the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, and bus. It also discusses instruction execution in fetch and execute cycles and how microprocessors are classified based on capabilities and characteristics such as RISC vs CISC designs. Assembly language programming allows microprocessors to receive instructions in machine-readable form.
The document discusses computer systems and microprocessors. It describes the primary components of a computer including input, output, storage, and processing units. It then focuses on central processing units and microprocessors. It provides details on early computer development, transistor evolution, integrated circuits, common microprocessor architectures, and how microprocessor systems function at a basic level using binary numbers and voltage levels.
This document discusses the evolution of computer hardware through four generations from 1951 to present. It describes the key components of computer systems including the central processing unit, primary and secondary storage, and input/output devices. The CPU contains the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and primary storage. Secondary storage devices like magnetic tapes, disks, and optical disks are used to store large amounts of data externally.
Report on evolution of processor by sandesh agrawalSandesh Agrawal
a best place to the beginners n seekers n for those which are very keen to learn on the topic - processor & automation.
The brain or engine of the PC is the processor (sometimes called microprocessor), or central processing unit (CPU). The CPU performs the system’s calculating and processing. The processor is easily the most expensive single component in the system, costing up to four or more times greater than the motherboard it plugs into. Intel is generally credited with creating the first microprocessor in 1971 with the introduction of a chip called the 4004. Today Intel still has control over the processor market, at least for PC systems. This means that all PC-compatible systems use either Intel processors or Intel-compatible processors from a handful of competitors (such as AMD or Cyrix).
The document provides an introduction to microprocessors, including definitions, basic concepts, and the typical organization of a microprocessor-based system. It describes a microprocessor as a programmable device that takes in binary numbers as data, performs arithmetic and logical operations on them according to the instructions in a stored program, and produces results. Key aspects covered include the central processing unit, memory systems, instruction execution cycles, machine language, and the role of the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and register array within a microprocessor. Bus structures for address, data, and control are also defined.
The document provides an introduction to microprocessors including definitions, basic concepts, internal organization, and bus structure. It defines a microprocessor as a programmable device that takes in binary numbers as data, performs arithmetic and logical operations on them according to the stored program, and produces results. Internally, a microprocessor consists of an ALU, control unit, and register array. It also describes the address, data, and control buses that connect the microprocessor to memory and I/O devices. The document outlines the fetch-decode-execute instruction cycle and introduces machine language and memory in microprocessor systems.
The document provides an overview of the history and development of microprocessors. It discusses how the invention of the transistor led to the development of integrated circuits and eventually microprocessors. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004 designed in 1971. This began the shift to smaller and more affordable personal computers. The document then discusses the architecture of the 8085 microprocessor, including its arithmetic logic unit, registers, buses, and classification based on data width and application.
The document discusses the history and development of microcontrollers. It describes how microcontrollers originated from MOSFET technology and integrated circuits in the 1960s. The world's first microcontroller, the TMS 1000, was created by TI engineers in 1971 and commercially released in 1974. Microcontrollers combine a processor, memory, and peripherals onto a single chip and are commonly used in embedded systems and devices like automobiles, appliances, and computers. The document outlines the typical components and architecture of microcontrollers.
Microprocessors and microcontrollers are both integrated circuits that contain a processor, memory, and input/output peripherals on a single chip. Microprocessors are general purpose CPUs used to build computer systems, while microcontrollers are self-contained systems that control embedded devices. Microcontrollers contain additional components like timers and analog-to-digital converters that make them suitable for real-time control applications in devices and appliances. Common applications of microcontrollers include industrial control systems, home appliances, automotive engine control systems, and consumer electronics. Microprocessors are used to build more complex computer systems for applications like desktop PCs, servers, communication equipment, and industrial instrumentation.
Lecture notes on microprocessor and microcomputerEkeedaPvtLtd
Here you can get notes on Microprocessor and Microcomputer for IT Engineering. Here we have covered Important topics on Microprocessor and Microcomputer for Information Technology Engineering subject.
The document summarizes a technical seminar on processors presented by Bharat Kumar Rajak. It discusses the evolution of processors from early transistor-based designs to modern multi-core CPUs. It covers key topics like processor architecture, types of processors including RISC and CISC, applications, and future directions. Examples are provided to illustrate concepts like single-core, dual-core, and multi-core processor designs as well as cache memory and clock speed. The seminar aims to provide an overview of processors, their history, workings and importance in computers and other electronics.
The document discusses microprocessors and their architecture. It begins by introducing microprocessors and their components, including the processor, buses, memory, and input/output devices. It then covers the different types of microprocessor architecture, including Harvard and Von Neumann/Princeton architectures. Finally, it discusses the various applications of microprocessors in devices, industries, and systems.
In these presentation it contain introduction of micro-controller and micro-processor and it's difference. it's uses in daily life and their application. discuss different pins of microprocessor 8085.
I hope it will help in your Presentation.
Micro controller and dsp processor, Microcontroller, What is Microcontroller , Features of a Microcontroller, Types of Microcontrollers, cisc, risc, Comparison between RISC and CISC, Harvard Memory Architecture Microcontroller, Von Neumann or Princeton Memory Architecture Microcontroller, External memory microcontroller, Embedded memory microcontroller, How does the microcontroller operate, Microcontroller architecture, Applications of Microcontroller, Microcontrollers used in , Various manufacturers of Microcontroller, Advantages and Disadvantages of Microcontroller, Comparing microcontroller and microprocessor, DSP Processor, Digital signal Processor, What is DPS Processor, Components of DSP, Architecture of DSP Processor, How DSP processor works, Advantages and disadvantages of DSP, Application of DSP, APPLICATIONS of DSP, MGCGV, Shubham Mishra
The microprocessor is a central processing unit contained on a single chip. It acts as the central component of a microcomputer. As technology has advanced, microprocessors have become faster, smaller, and able to perform more work per clock cycle. A microprocessor is fabricated on a very small chip and is capable of performing arithmetic and logic operations and communicating with external devices.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
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How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Reimagining Your Library Space: How to Increase the Vibes in Your Library No ...Diana Rendina
Librarians are leading the way in creating future-ready citizens – now we need to update our spaces to match. In this session, attendees will get inspiration for transforming their library spaces. You’ll learn how to survey students and patrons, create a focus group, and use design thinking to brainstorm ideas for your space. We’ll discuss budget friendly ways to change your space as well as how to find funding. No matter where you’re at, you’ll find ideas for reimagining your space in this session.
Reimagining Your Library Space: How to Increase the Vibes in Your Library No ...
Introduction to Microprocessors
1. MICROPROCESSORS
I-INTRODUCTION:
Microprocessors are regarded as one of the most important devices in
our everyday machines called computers. Before we start, we need to
understand what exactly microprocessors are and their appropriate
implementations. Microprocessor is an electronic circuit that functions as
the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer, providing computational
control. Microprocessors are also used in other advanced electronic systems,
such as computer printers, automobiles, and jet airliners
Typical microprocessors incorporate arithmetic and logic functional
units as well as the associated control logic, instruction processing circuitry,
1
2. and a portion of the memory hierarchy. Portions of the interface logic for
the input/output (I/O) and memory subsystems may also be infused,
allowing cheaper overall systems. While many microprocessors and single-
chip designs, some high-performance designs rely on a few chips to provide
multiple functional units and relatively large caches. (Really, Mark, p. 49)
When combined with other integrated circuits that provide storage for
data and programs, often on a single semiconductor base to form a chip, the
microprocessor becomes the heart of a small computer, or microcomputer.
Microprocessors are classified by the semiconductor technology of their
design (TTL, transistor-transistor logic; CMOS, complementary-metal-oxide
semiconductor; or ECL, emitter-coupled logic), by the width of the data
format (4-bit, 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, or 64-bit) they process; and by their
instruction set (CISC, complex-instruction-set computer, or RISC, reduced-
instruction-set computer; see RISC processor). TTL technology is most
commonly used, while CMOS is favored for portable computers and other
battery-powered devices because of its low power consumption. ECL is used
where the need for its greater speed offsets the fact that it consumes the most
power. Four-bit devices, while inexpensive, are good only for simple control
applications; in general, the wider the data format, the faster and more
expensive the device. CISC processors, which have 70 to several hundred
2
3. instructions, are easier to program than RISC processors, but are slower and
more expensive. (Slater, p. 101-113).
Microprocessors have been described in many different ways. They
have been compared with the brain and the heart of humans. Their operation
has been likened to a switched board, and to the nervous system in an
animal. They have often been called microcomputers. The original purpose
of the microprocessor was to control memory. That is what they were
originally designed to do, and that is what they do today. Specifically, a
microprocessor is “a component that implements memory.”(Wilson, p.24-
30)
A microprocessor can do any information-processing task that can be
expressed, precisely, as a plan. It is totally uncommitted as to what its plan
will be. It is a truly general-purpose information-processing device. The
plan, which it is to execute—which will, in other words, control its
operation—is stored electronically. This is the principle of “stored program
control”. Without a program the microprocessor can do nothing. With one,
it can do anything. Furthermore, microprocessors can only perform
information-processing tasks. To take action on the outside world, or to
receive signals from it, a connection must be provided between the
3
4. microprocessor’s representation of information (as digital electronic signals)
and the real world representation.
Developed during the 1970s, the microprocessor became most visible
as the central processor of the personal computer. Microprocessors also play
supporting roles within larger computers as smart controllers for graphics
displays, storage devices, and high-speed printers. However, the vast
majority of microprocessors are used to control everything from consumer
appliances to smart weapons. The microprocessor has made possible the
inexpensive hand-held electronic calculator, the digital wristwatch, and the
electronic game. Microprocessors are used to control consumer electronic
devices, such as the programmable microwave oven and videocassette
recorder; to regulate gasoline consumption and antilock brakes in
automobiles; to monitor alarm systems; and to operate automatic tracking
and targeting systems in aircraft, tanks, and missiles and to control radar
arrays that track and identify aircraft, among other defense applications.
(Ismail, and Rooney, p.5-19)
HISTORY:
4
5. The first digital computers were built in the 1940’s using bulky relay
and vacuum-tube switches. Relays had mechanical speed limitations.
Vacuum tubes required considerable power, dissipated a significant amount
of heat, and suffered high failure rates. Some systems achieved processing
rates up to 1,000 operations per second. In 1947, Bell Laboratories invented
the transistor, which rapidly replaced the vacuum tube as a computer switch
for several reasons, including smaller size, faster switching speeds, lower
power consumption and dissipation, and higher reliability. In the 1960s
Texas Instruments invented the integrated circuit, allowing a single silicon
chip to contain several transistors as well as their interconnections.
(White, p. 50)
The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004, produced in 1971.
Originally developed for a calculator, and revolutionary for its time, it
contained 2,300 transistors on a 4-bit microprocessor that could perform
only 60,000 operations per second. The first 8-bit microprocessor was the
Intel 8008, developed in 1972 to run computer terminals. The Intel 8008
contained 3,300 transistors. The first truly general-purpose microprocessor,
developed in 1974, was the 8-bit Intel 8080, which contained 4,500
transistors and could execute 200,000 instructions per second. By 1989, 32-
bit microprocessors containing 1.2 million transistors and capable of
5
6. executing 20 million instructions per second had been introduced.
(Bernstein, p.30)
Reductions in both device size and power dissipation are essential in
achieving these high densities. Smaller device sizes also allow faster
switching speeds, which in turn permit higher processor clock rates.
Increased density also lets designers add circuitry to increase the amount of
work performed within a cycle. On many benchmarks, high-end
microprocessors are two orders of magnitude faster than the DEC VAX-
11/780 minicomputer, a performance standard in the 1970’s. Key
distinctions between mainframe and high-performance microprocessor-
based systems often are simply physical size, ability to handle large amounts
of I/O, and software issues. (Patterson, p. 15-45)
COMPUTER MEMORY:
Because the microprocessor alone cannot accommodate the large
amount of memory required to store program instructions and data, such as
the text in a word-processing program, transistors can be used as memory
elements in combination with the microprocessor. Separate integrated
circuits, called random-access memory (RAM) chips, which contain large
numbers of transistors, are used in conjunction with the microprocessor to
6
7. provide the needed memory. There are different kinds of random-access
memory. Static RAM (SRAM) holds information as long as power is turned
on and is usually used as cache memory because it operates very quickly.
Another type of memory, dynamic RAM (DRAM), is slower than SRAM
and must be periodically refreshed with electricity or the information it holds
is lost. DRAM is more economical than SRAM and serves as the main
memory element in most computers.(Tocci, p.170)
MICROPROCESSOR DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE:
Microprocessors are fabricated using techniques similar to those used
for other integrated circuits, such as memory chips. Microprocessors
generally have a more complex structure than do other chips, and their
manufacture requires extremely precise techniques. The first step in
producing a microprocessor is the creation of an ultra pure silicon substrate,
a silicon slice in the shape of a round wafer that is polished to a mirror-like
smoothness. At present, the largest wafers used in industry are 300 mm (12
in) in diameter. (Tocci, p .170)
Economical manufacturing of microprocessors requires mass
production. Several hundred dies, or circuit patterns, are created on the
surface of a silicon wafer simultaneously. Microprocessors are constructed
7
8. by a process of deposition and removal of conducting, insulating, and semi
conducting materials one thin layer at a time until, after hundreds of separate
steps, a complex sandwich is constructed that contains all the interconnected
circuitry of the microprocessor. Only the outer surface of the silicon wafer—
a layer about 10 microns (about 0.01 mm/0.0004 in) thick, or about one-
tenth the thickness of a human hair—is used for the electronic circuit. The
processing steps include substrate creation, oxidation, lithography, etching,
ion implantation, and film deposition.(Tocci, p.172-175)
In the oxidation step, an electrically no conducting layer, called a
dielectric, is placed between each conductive layer on the wafer. The most
important type of dielectric is silicon dioxide, which is “grown” by exposing
the silicon wafer to oxygen in a furnace at about 1000°C (about 1800°F).
The oxygen combines with the silicon to form a thin layer of oxide about 75
angstroms deep (an angstrom is one ten-billionth of a meter). Nearly every
layer that is deposited on the wafer must be patterned accurately into the
shape of the transistors and other electronic elements. Usually this is done in
a process known as photolithography, which is analogous to transforming
the wafer into a piece of photographic film and projecting a picture of the
circuit on it. A coating on the surface of the wafer, called the photo resist or
resist, changes when exposed to light, making it easy to dissolve in a
8
9. developing solution. These patterns are as small as 0.13 microns in size.
Because the shortest wavelength of visible light is about 0.5 microns, short-
wavelength ultraviolet light must be used to resolve the tiny details of the
patterns. After photolithography, the wafer is etched—that is, the resist is
removed from the wafer either by chemicals, in a process known as wet
etching, or by exposure to a corrosive gas, in a special vacuum chamber
(Bernstein, p.30-44)
In the next step of the process, ion implantation, also called doping,
impurities such as boron and phosphorus are introduced into the silicon to
alter its conductivity. This is accomplished by ionizing the boron or
phosphorus atoms and propelling them at the wafer with an ion implanter at
very high energies. The ions become embedded in the surface of the wafer.
The thin layers used to build up a microprocessor are referred to as films. In
the final step of the process, the films are deposited using sputterers in which
thin films are grown in a plasma; by means of evaporation, whereby the
material is melted and then evaporated coating the wafer; or by means of
chemical-vapor deposition, whereby the material condenses from a gas at
low or atmospheric pressure. In each case, the film must be of high purity
and its thickness must be controlled within a small fraction of a micron.
Microprocessor features are so small and precise that a single speck of dust
9
10. can destroy an entire die. The rooms used for microprocessor creation are
called clean rooms because the air in them is extremely well filtered and
virtually free of dust. The purest of today's clean rooms are referred to, as
class 1, indicating that there is no more than one speck of dust per cubic foot
of air. (Bernstein, p.30-44 )
A basic difference between a microprocessor and other logic chips is
the functional flexibility afforded by the microprocessor’s programmable
nature. Its instruction set comprises the group of available low-level
operations. Each instruction has a specific binary pattern, or operation code.
This operation code specifies the operation as well as the location of the
operands. A programmer uses sequences of these low-level instructions to
create a desired higher-level function. Therefore the personality of a
microprocessor-based system can be readily modified without the hardware
modifications usually associated with non-programmable logic systems.
(Hammerstrom, p. 3 )
A typical microprocessor chip set includes an instruction control unit,
one or more functional units, a set of register, and one or more caches.
Conceptually, the instruction control unit fetches an instruction from main
memory, interprets the operation code, and then dispatches the instruction to
a functional unite. The functional unit may again interpret the operation
10
11. code, read the required operands from the register or memory perform the
specified operation and store the result in either the register set or memory.
Then the process repeats, with the instruction control unite fetching the next
instruction. A powerful aspect of programmability arises from the ability to
specify which instruction will be executed next; selection is often based on
the outcome of a test involving computed results. (Really, Mark, p.49)
For performance reasons, implementations commonly segment the
instruction processing into stages and allow multiple instructions to overlap,
each executing in a different pipeline stage. High-end designs dispatch
multiple instructions each processor cycle. Since main memory access times
are relatively slow, smaller, faster memory units are frequently employed to
cache recently used portions of main memory, creating a memory hierarchy.
These caches are typically an order of magnitude faster than main memory.
Separate caches may be used for instruction and data, or a unified cache may
hold both. Multiple levels of cache are how a popular solution to the
performance problems created by the increasing gap between processor and
memory speeds. (Really, Mark , p. 50)
CLASSIFICATION OF MICROPROCESSORS:
11
12. Several functional classifications can be used to classify
microprocessors. The different types of microprocessors used most
frequently are as follows:
INTEL MICROPROCESSORS:
4004 (1970)
Intel's Ted Hoff and Federico Faggin designed and implemented
(respectively) the first general-purpose microprocessor. The 4004 processor,
used in a hand-held calculator built by Busicom of Japan, was part of a four-
chip set called the 4000 Family:
• 4001 - 2,048-bit ROM memory
• 4002 - 320-bit RAM memory
• 4003 - 10-bit I/O shift register
• 4004 - 4-bit central processor
8008 (1972)
The 8008 increased the 4004's word length from four to eight bits,
and doubled the volume of information that could be processed. It was still
an invention in search of a market however, as the technology world was
just beginning to view the microprocessor as a solution to many needs.
12
13. 8080 (1974)
The 8080 were 20 times as fast as the 4004 and contained twice as
many transistors.
This 8-bit chip represented a technological milestone as engineers
recognized its value and used it in a wide variety of products. It was perhaps
most notable as the processor in the first kit computer, the Altair, which
ignited the personal computing phenomenon.
8088 (1979)
Created as a cheaper version of Intel's 8086, the 8088 was a 16-bit
processor with an 8-bit external bus. This chip became the most ubiquitous
in the computer industry when IBM chose it for its first PC. The success of
the IBM PC and its clones gave Intel a dominant position in the
semiconductor industry.
80286 (1982)
With 16 MB of addressable memory and 1 GB of virtual memory,
this 16-bit chip is referred to as the first "modern" microprocessor. Many
novices were introduced to desktop computing with a "286 machine" and it
became the dominant chip of its time. It contained 130,000 transistors and
packed serious compute power (12 MHz) into a tiny footprint.
13
14. 80386 (1985), 80486 (1989)
The price/performance curve continued its steep climb with the 386
and later the 486 --32-bit processors that brought real computing to the
masses. The 386, which became the best-selling microprocessor in history,
featured 275,000 transistors; the 486 had more than a million.
Pentium¨ (1993)
Adding systems-level characteristics to enormous raw compute
power, the Pentium supports demanding I/O, graphics and communications-
intensive applications with more than 3 million transistors.
Pentium¨ Pro (1995)
The newest Pentium has dynamic instruction execution and other
performance-enhancing features such as a large L2 cache in the chip
package, in addition to its more than 5.5 million transistors.
Pentium¨ II (1997)
The 7.5 million-transistor Pentium II processor incorporates Intel
MMXTM technology, which is designed specifically to process video, audio
and graphics data efficiently.
Pentium II Xeon (1998)
The Pentium II Xeon processors are designed to meet the performance
requirements of mid-range and higher servers and workstations. Consistent
with Intel's strategy to deliver unique processor products targeted for
14
15. specific markets segments, the Pentium II Xeon processors feature technical
innovations specifically designed for workstations and servers that utilize
demanding business applications such as Internet services, corporate data
warehousing, digital content creation, and electronic and mechanical design
automation. Systems based on the processor can be configured to scale to
four or eight processors and beyond .
Celeron (1999)
Continuing Intel's strategy of developing processors for specific
market segments, the Intel Celeron processor is designed for the value PC
market segment. It provides consumers great performance at an exceptional
value, and it delivers excellent performance for uses such as gaming and
educational software
Pentium III (1999)
The Pentium III processor features 70 new instructions. It was
designed to significantly enhance Internet experiences, allowing users to do
such things as browse through realistic online museums and stores and
download high-quality video. The processor incorporates 9.5 million
transistors, and was introduced using 0.25-micron technology.
Pentium III Xeon (1999)
15
16. The Pentium III Xeon processor extends Intel's offerings to the
workstation and server market segments, providing additional performance
for e-Commerce applications and advanced business computing. The
processors incorporate the Pentium III processor's 70 SIMD instructions,
which enhance multimedia and streaming video applications. The Pentium
III Xeon processor's advance cache technology speeds information from the
system bus to the processor, significantly boosting performance. It is
designed for systems with multiprocessor configurations. (Brain , Marshall)
The Intel family of Processors
Chip Year Data Bus Address Bus Speed (in Transistors
added width (in width (in MHz)
bits) bits)
8080 1974 8 8 2 6.000
8086 1978 16 20 5-10 29.000
8088 1979 8 20 4.77 29.000
80286 1982 16 24 8-12 134.000
386DX 1985 32 32 16-33 275.000
386SX 1988 32 24 16-20 275.000
486DX 1989 32 32 25-50 1.2 million
486SX 1991 32 32 16-33 1.185million
487SX 1991 32 32 16-33 1.2 million
486DX2 1991 32 32 33-66 2.0 million
486DX4 1992 32 32 75-100 2.5 million
16
17. Pentium 1993 32 32 60-166 3.3 million
Pentium 1995 64 32 150-200 5.5 million
Pro
Pentium II 1997 64 64 233-300 7.5 million
Pentium II 1998 64 64 400-600 7.5 million
Xeon
Celeron 1999 64 64 400-600 7.5 million
Pentium 1999 64 64 350-1000 9.5 million
III
Pentium 1999 64 64 350-1000 9.5 million
III Xeon
(Groth, and Newland, p . 80-81)
4-BIT MICROPROCESSORS:
Historically, the 4-bit microprocessor was the first general-
purpose microprocessor introduced on the market. The basic design of the
early microprocessors was derived from that of the desk calculator. The
Intel 4004, a 4-bit design, was the grandfather of microprocessors.
Introduced in late 1971, the 4004 was originally designed for a Japanese
manufacturer as the processing element of a desk calculator; it was not
designed as a general-purpose computer. The shortcomings of the 4004
were recognized as soon as it was introduced. But it was the first general-
purpose computing device on a chip to be placed on the market. Many of
the chips introduced at about the same time by other companies were, in
fact, mere calculator chips. Some of them were even serial-by-bit devices,
17
18. which performed calculations a single bit at a time. The Intel 4004 chip took
the integrated circuit down one step further by placing all the parts that made
a computer think (i.e. central processing unit, memory, input and output
controls) on one small chip. Programming intelligence into inanimate
objects had now become possible. (Bernstein, p. 201)
The 4004 was the world's first universal microprocessor. In the late
1960s, many scientists had discussed the possibility of a computer on a chip,
but nearly everyone felt that integrated circuit technology was not yet ready
to support such a chip. Intel's Ted Hoff felt differently; he was the first
person to recognize that the new silicon-gated MOS technology might make
a single-chip CPU (central processing unit) possible. (Zaks, p. 305-310)
Hoff and the Intel team developed such architecture with
just over 2,300 transistors in an area of only 3 by 4
millimeters. With its 4 - bit CPU, command register, decoder,
decoding control, control monitoring of machine commands and
interim register, the 4004 was one heck of a little
invention. Today's 64 - bit microprocessors are still based on
similar designs, and the microprocessor is still the most
complex mass - produced product ever with more than 5.5 million
18
19. transistors performing hundreds of millions of calculations
each second - numbers that are sure to be outdated fast .
(Zaks, p. 305-310)
Within a short period of time, the 4004 became obsolete and was
replaced by the 4040. Then, the powerful 8-bit microprocessors were
introduced at a price that was only slightly higher than the price of the 4040.
Although 4-bit microprocessors played an important role in the early years
of the microcomputer revolution, today they are technically obsolete.
Because of their extremely low cost, however, they still offer an attractive
alternative to low-end- 8-bit microprocessors. In fact, several 4-bit chips
continue to be among the best sellers of all microprocessors: prime examples
are the National Semiconductor COP400 and the NEC uPD75XX series.
(Bernstein, p.202)
8-BIT MICROPROCESSORS:
Today, 8-bit microprocessors coexist with 16-bit microprocessors as
the design standard. Although 16-bit chips provide higher performance
computationally, 8-bit designs have more than adequate power for many
applications—plus the advantage of lower cost. As originally design, most
16-bit microprocessors were limited to packages with a maximum of 40 to
19
20. 48 pins. This was not due to physical, but rather to economic, constraints:
industrial tester of the time was generally limited to 40-pin DIPs. The
ancestor of today’s 8-bit microprocessors was the Intel 8008, introduced in
1972-1973. The 8008 was not intended to be a general-purpose
microprocessor. IT was to be a CRT display controller for Data point.
Taking into account all of its design inadequacies and its limited
performance, the 8008 was an overwhelming success. (Bernstein, p.202)
INTEL (8-BIT MICROPROCESSORS) :
The 8080, designed as a successor to Intel’s 8008, was the first
powerful microprocessor introduced on the market. Several other
microprocessors of similar performance were introduced on the market
within a year after the 8080 appeared, and several additional powerful
designs were introduced later. Technically, however, the 8080 long
remained the most powerful product on the market. Furthermore, Intel was
the first company to invest in the development of support chips and software
for its products. This ensured the continued success of the 8080 because its
performance was then sufficient for many applications. The early 8080
competitors were introduced with at least a nine-month delay and failed to
dislodge it. The 8080 is still sold today thought It has been largely eclipsed
by successor products—most notably the 8085 microprocessor. Today, the
20
21. 8085 accounts for roughly one of every four 8-bit microprocessors sold.
(Bernstein, p. 206)
MOTORALA (8-BIT MICROPROCESSORS):
The 6800 was introduced by Motorola as a direct competitor to the
8080. The design of the 6800 was obviously inspired by the 8008 and the
then prevalent minicomputer philosophy. The 6800 has essentially the same
internal architecture as the 8080, though there are some differences at the
register level. The internal architecture of the 6800 is equipped with tow
accumulators. The 6800 has a special indeed register (IX) that facilitates
access to tables stored in the memory. The 8080 does not have an indeed
register but is equipped with register pairs than can be used to provide a
similar facility. The 6800 instructions reflect the fact that it was introduced
after the 8080. They tend to be somewhat more complex but generally
similar to those of the 8080. Depending on the function used in the
comparison, either of the two microprocessors can be said to be marginally
faster.
The most significant different in performance is achieved not by
comparing a standard 8080 to a standard 6800—their performance is
essentially similar—but by considering a faster version of either the 8080 or
21
22. the 6800. The 8080 is available in three version: the standard 8080A with a
2MHZ clock, the 8080A-2, and the 8080A-1 with a 3MHZ clock. The 6800
is also available in two versions. The standard 6800 use a 1MHZ clock.
However, the clock rates do not mean that the standard 6800 is twice as fast
as the standard 8080A. The clock simply supplies the pulses needed by the
internal micro program of the control unit. In the average, the 8080 uses
simpler microinstructions and requires twice as many microinstructions as
the 6800. It therefore uses a faster clock. The overall performances of the
8080 and the 6800 are similar. A typical instruction is executed in two
microseconds on either microcomputer. (Bernstein, p. 207)
In the 1990s the number of transistors on microprocessors continued
to double nearly every 18 months. The rate of change followed an early
prediction made by American semiconductor pioneer Gordon Moore. In
1965 Moore predicted that the number of transistors on a computer chip
would double every year, a prediction that has come to be known as Moore's
Law. In the mid-1990s chips included the Intel Pentium Pro, containing 5.5
million transistors; the UItra Sparc-II, by Sun Microsystems, containing 5.4
million transistors; the PowerPC620, developed jointly by Apple, IBM, and
Motorola, containing 7 million transistors; and the Digital Equipment
Corporation's Alpha 21164A, containing 9.3 million transistors. By the end
22
23. of the decade microprocessors contained many millions of transistors,
transferred 64 bits of data at once, and performed billions of instructions per
second. . (Bernstein, p. 208)
MICROPROCESSOR APPLICATIONS:
When microprocessors appeared, they were first used in computer
systems for a negative reason. In the early 1970’s there were few support
chips and microprocessors were programmed to perform functions that are
now done by a wide variety of hardware chips. For this reason assembling a
complete microprocessor-based system required both hardware and software
expertise. Only five years later in 1976 companies realized that
microprocessors could be used to build inexpensive personal computers. It
then took several more years to manufacture computers that were adequate
for business and professional purposes. Yet the technology had been there
all along. (Naturally with time costs have diminished and integrated circuits
have been improved). Many of the early microprocessor applications found
markets by accident rather than by design. New product development had
generally been a direct result of the dissemination of technical information.
(Zaks, p. 299)
23
24. In the early 1970s the necessary combination of hardware and
software expertise was rarely found outside the computer manufacturing
industry. This was not perceived as a problem, because when
microprocessors were introduced, the computer establishment saw them only
as low-cost processors for simple control applications. In fact, the first 8-bit
microprocessor, the Intel 8008, was designed for direct control of a CRT
display. Microprocessors are now used for controlling virtually every
computer peripheral that does not require bipolar speeds. Initially, such
applications were limited by the relatively low speed of early
microprocessors. But now, with the faster microprocessors coupled with
specialized peripheral controller chips, such as CRT and floppy disk
controllers, it is possible to control fast devices such as CRT’s and disks.
(Zaks, p. 299-301)
With microprocessors, we have now entered the era of distributed
systems. In distributed systems, intercommunication between a number of
processors is reduced to a minimum because they do not interact in real-time
but exchange data words or block. Each processor is then a direct process
controller that completely controls a process. Such network may involve
multiple microprocessors. Traditionally, a multiprocessor system is one in
which several processors interact with each other in real-time for control
24
25. purposes. Most systems involving networks of microprocessors do not
interact so closely and therefore do not qualify as “ multimicroprocessor
systems.” (Zaks, p. 299-301)
The widespread use of microprocessors to replace random logic has
dramatically increased since the early 1980’s. Microprocessors afford a
flexibility not available in conventional “hardwired” circuitry. Design and
production costs of a single high-volume system can be amortized by using
different programs to tailor the system toe meet the diverse needs of several
specific applications. Incorporating last-minute design changes is normally
quicker and easier in software that in hardware. Finally, many inexpensive
microprocessors are now capable of speeds that are more than adequate for
many products. (White, p. 50)
Microprocessors are utilized in computer systems ranging from
notebooks computers to small personal computers to supercomputer-class
workstations. Programs include word processing, electronic mail,
spreadsheets, animation, graphics, and database processing. Owing to their
low cost and flexibility, microprocessors appear in many everyday
household products, such as microwave ovens, handheld electronic games,
washing machines, programmable videocassette recorders (VCRs), and
programmable thermostats. Newer cars incorporate microprocessor-
25
26. controlled ignition and emission systems to improve engine operation,
increasing fuel economy while reducing pollution.(Really, Mark, p. 50)
With the continuing progress of LSI technology, most microprocessor
systems actually use multiple processors distributed over several chips.
Processors can often be found in the peripheral chips of the system, i.e., the
PIO, the UART, or other system chips. This makes the programming tasks
more difficult than with traditional systems; however, it does result in
standardized systems, All of the traditional chips that were merely interface
devices in the past are now fully programmable. Programmed instructions
are sent to these devices by the microprocessor. These processors, residing
in peripheral devices, should be considered as slaves.
FUTURE TRENDS:
Cheaper systems will result from greater integration of support
circuitry within the microprocessor chip. The trend of incorporating larger
portions of the computer system may advance to placing multiple
microprocessors on a single chip. Additional processing capacity will
support abstractions, such as productivity-motivated object-oriented
programming, while maintaining acceptable response times. Higher degrees
of system integration and additional performance on a chip will open new
26
27. arena for microprocessor use, as well as new products, including speech and
pen-based character recognition systems, virtual reality, simulations of other
architectures, compression, and enhanced graphics. (Really, and Mark, p.
50)
In 2000-chip manufacturer Advanced Micro Devices debuted a
1 GHz microprocessor, the fastest microprocessor ever mass-produced for
personal computers. The high-speed processor contains approximately 22
million transistors. (Bernstein, p. 207)
RECENTLY LAUNCHED MICROPROCESSORS:
Intel’s Pentium-4 processor:
The Pentium-4 is fabricated in Intel's 0.18-micron CMOS process. Its
die size is 217 mm2, power consumption is 50W. The Pentium 4 is available
in 1.4GHz and 1.5Hz bins. At 1.5GHz the microprocessor delivers 535
SPECint2000 and 558 SPECfp2000 of performance. Currently it is the
second-performing general-purpose microprocessor. The world champion is
Compaq/Digital Alpha 21264B CPU delivering 544 SPECint2000 and 658
27
28. SPECfp2000 at 833 MHz. The previous Intel chip, Pentium-III
"Coppermine", had 442 SPECint2000 and 335 SPECfp2000 results at 1GHz.
Pentium-4 is the first completely new x86-processor design from Intel
since the Pentium PRO processor, with its P6 micro-architecture, was
introduced in 1995. Pentium-4' micro-architecture is known as NetBurst. It
has many interesting features. Compared to the Intel Pentium-III processor,
Intel's NetBurst micro-architecture doubles the pipeline depth to 20 stages.
In addition to the L1 8 KB data cache, the Pentium 4 processor includes an
Execution Trace Cache that stores up to 12 K decoded micro-ops in the
order of program execution. The on-die 256KB L2-cache is non-blocking, 8-
way set associative. It employs 256-bit interface that delivers data transfer
rate of 48 GB/s at 1.5 GHz. The Pentium 4 processor expands the floating-
point registers to a full 128-bit and adds an additional register for data
movement. Pentium-4' NetBurst micro-architecture introduces Internet
Streaming SIMD Extensions 2 (SSE2). This extends the SIMD capabilities
that MMX technology and SSE technology delivered by adding 144 new
instructions. These instructions include 128-bit SIMD integer arithmetic and
128-bit SIMD double-precision floating-point operations. Pentium 4
processor's 400 MHz (100 MHz "quad pumped") system bus provides up to
3.2 GB/s of bandwidth. The bus is fed by dual PC800 Rambus channel. This
28
29. compares to 1.06 GB/s delivered on the Pentium-III processor's 133-MHz
system bus.
Two Arithmetic Logic Units (ALUs) on the Pentium 4 processor are
clocked at twice the core processor frequency. This allows basic integer
instructions such as Add, Subtract, Logical AND, Logical OR, etc. to
execute in a half clock cycle. The integer register file runs also runs at the
double frequency. Interesting is that this method was firstly introduced by
Elbrus team in their E2K processor design. The E2K design was described in
Microprocessor Report article by Keith Diefendorff in Feb 1999.(Alexin
Pylkin, )
Elbrus E2K
Russian company Elbrus International has disclosed the technical
details of its revolutionary new microprocessor E2K. The microprocessor
will function 3 to 5 times more quickly than Intel Merced while still running
all legacy MS DOS and Windows software. Fabricated in a 0.18-micron
process, the chip would run at 1.2GHz and deliver 135 SPECint95 and 350
SPECfp95, yet require only 35 Watts of power and occupy 126 mm2 of
silicon. By contrast, Intel's forthcoming processor, which will be
manufactured in the same process, would operate at 800MHz, occupy 300
mm2, consume 60 Watts, and score only 45 SPECint95 and 70 SPECfp95.
29
30. Elbrus technology does not infringe on any Western intellectual property
and it is protected by 70 US patent applications.
The technology underlying the E2k delivers computing performance
that exceeds all other existing and planned processors, including
Digital/Compaq Alpha. This extraordinary performance results from an
incredibly efficient architecture design that has been continually refined by
the Elbrus team. Over the decades, it turns out, it was often far ahead of
Western rivals, introducing cutting-edge techniques such as super scalar
design, shared-memory multiprocessing and explicitly parallel instruction
computing (EPIC) before similar products or even papers on the subjects
were available here.
The Elbrus team, led by a supercomputer architect Boris Babaian
(another transcription -- Babayan), has worked together for nearly 40 years,
mostly for the former Soviet Union's and Russia's defense establishment.
Since 1992 the team works in tight cooperation with Sun Microsystems. The
same team has taken a great part in developing Sun UltraSPARC processor,
Sun UltraSPARC compilers, and Sun Solaris operating system. The E2K
project is a commercial version of the design has already been used in the
Russian Space Mission Control and the Russian Missile Defense System.
30
31. The previous chip was manufactured in February 1998 in 0.5-micron
process. (Pylkin, Alexei)
Intel announced new brand name for its Merced IA-64
microprocessor - Itanium. So, new HP/Intel microprocessor family has
rather long list of brand names, code names, etc: Itanium, Merced,
McKinley, Madison, Deerfild, IA-64, EPIC, P7, PlayDoh, Super-Parallel
Processor Architecture (SP-PA), Wide-Word. Itanium is sampling now.
Experimental systems with Itanium samples inside were demonstrated at last
Intel Developer Forum. Nevertheless still it is not known about future
Itanium performance as well as other metrics. (Pylkin, Alexei)
31
32. REFERENCES:
1. Ismail ,R. and Rooney, V. M. ,Microprocessor Hardware and
Software Concepts (1987);
2. Zaks,Rodnay. & Wolfe Alexander, From Chips to Systems, (1981)
3. Tocci, Ronald J. Microprocessors and Microcomputers, (1987)
Prentice Hall.
4. Slater, Micheal . A Guide to RISC Microprocessors (1992).
5. Gary H. Bernstein, Microprocessor, Britannica Encyclopedia.
6. White, Steven W, Computer Architecture
7. Wilson, J.A.Sam. Introduction to Microprocessor Theory)
8. Patterson, David.A. C omputer Architecture: A
Quantitative Approach
32
33. +
9. Groth,David and Newland, Dan. A Complete Study Guide
10. Hammerstrom , Tucker. How Microprocessors Work
12. Osaki , Sinichiro .Handheld Computer Musium . [Online] Available:
http://member.nifty.ne.jp/handheld/computer/intel4004/inte
l4004.html
13. Brain , Marshall . How Microprocessors Work . [Online]
Available:
http://www.howstuffworks.com/microprocessor.htm
14. Pylkin , Alexei S, .Russian Academy of Sciences .[Online] Available:
http://www.microprocessor.sscc.ru/merced
33