This document introduces the Atmel AVR microcontroller series. It discusses that microcontrollers are increasingly being used in consumer electronics and vehicles. The AVR is a popular microcontroller produced by Atmel that follows a RISC architecture. It distinguishes between microprocessors, microcomputers, and microcontrollers, defining microcontrollers as having CPU, memory, and I/O on a single chip. The AVR has features like various peripherals and in-system programmability that make it suitable for many applications. The book is organized into sections covering the AVR, system design using AVR, and sample applications.
Presentation on History of Microcontroller(Updated - 2)ALPESH MARU
The document provides a history of microcontrollers beginning with the development of the first microprocessor by Intel in the early 1970s. It then discusses how Texas Instruments engineer Gary Boone developed the first single-chip microcontroller called the TMS1802NC in the early 1970s. The document outlines some of the key developments in microcontrollers over subsequent decades, including Intel's 8048 and 8051 microcontrollers, the introduction of EEPROM and flash memory technologies, and modern microcontrollers used in various applications today.
The document discusses the history and evolution of microprocessors over five generations from 1971 to the present. It describes some of the key microprocessors released during each generation, including the Intel 4004 (first microprocessor), Intel 8080, Intel 8086 (first 16-bit microprocessor), Intel 80386 (first 32-bit microprocessor), and Intel Core i7. It also discusses mobile microprocessors and prominent companies that design them like Qualcomm and Snapdragon, and MediaTek.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessors over five generations from 1971 to present. The first generation used PMOS technology and included 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004. The second generation used NMOS technology and had 8-bit processors like the Intel 8080. The third generation used 16-bit processors made with HMOS technology like the Intel 8086. Fourth generation processors were 32-bit like the Intel 80486 and used HCMOS technology. The latest fifth generation includes advanced 32-bit processors like Intel Pentium that can execute multiple instructions per clock cycle and achieve processing speeds over 3GHz.
This document describes a design for a PIC microcontroller-based Ethernet interface to control industrial parameters. The design consists of three main modules: an SPI communication module to interface sensors to the PIC, a controller module using the PIC microcontroller, and an Ethernet interface module using an ENC28J60 Ethernet controller chip. The sensor data is read using SPI, converted to ASCII format by the PIC, and transmitted over Ethernet to allow monitoring via a PC. This network interface allows existing SPI devices to be integrated into an industrial monitoring system and transmit sensor data remotely over a local area network.
This document provides an overview of robotics and embedded systems topics, including definitions of key concepts. It discusses embedded systems, robotics, advanced robotics involving various sensors and modules. It also introduces the ATmega16 microcontroller and programming in Arduino. Finally, it covers interfacing technologies like Bluetooth, Zigbee, GPS and ultrasonic sensors with microcontrollers.
The document provides information about Experiment No. 1 which aims to study IOT microcontrollers Arduino and Raspberry Pi. It describes the hardware components and specifications of the Arduino Uno board including the microcontroller, pins, and programming. It also discusses how to program and use the Arduino board for digital and analog input/output. The document then summarizes the generations and components of the Raspberry Pi 3 Model B microcontroller board including its processor, memory, and wireless capabilities.
This document describes a proposed system for an autonomous robotic vehicle that can detect live humans and assist with earthquake rescue operations. The robot would use a passive infrared (PIR) sensor to detect thermal radiation from live human bodies. It would then immediately alert rescue authorities so help could quickly reach survivors. The robot would be able to maneuver in earthquake areas using motors and precise control. Its goal is to help detect survivors faster than manual search methods, potentially saving lives. It would communicate wirelessly with a control station using Zigbee transmitters. The document outlines the system components, software, advantages like improved safety and accuracy, and potential future enhancements.
Presentation on History of Microcontroller(Updated - 2)ALPESH MARU
The document provides a history of microcontrollers beginning with the development of the first microprocessor by Intel in the early 1970s. It then discusses how Texas Instruments engineer Gary Boone developed the first single-chip microcontroller called the TMS1802NC in the early 1970s. The document outlines some of the key developments in microcontrollers over subsequent decades, including Intel's 8048 and 8051 microcontrollers, the introduction of EEPROM and flash memory technologies, and modern microcontrollers used in various applications today.
The document discusses the history and evolution of microprocessors over five generations from 1971 to the present. It describes some of the key microprocessors released during each generation, including the Intel 4004 (first microprocessor), Intel 8080, Intel 8086 (first 16-bit microprocessor), Intel 80386 (first 32-bit microprocessor), and Intel Core i7. It also discusses mobile microprocessors and prominent companies that design them like Qualcomm and Snapdragon, and MediaTek.
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessors over five generations from 1971 to present. The first generation used PMOS technology and included 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004. The second generation used NMOS technology and had 8-bit processors like the Intel 8080. The third generation used 16-bit processors made with HMOS technology like the Intel 8086. Fourth generation processors were 32-bit like the Intel 80486 and used HCMOS technology. The latest fifth generation includes advanced 32-bit processors like Intel Pentium that can execute multiple instructions per clock cycle and achieve processing speeds over 3GHz.
This document describes a design for a PIC microcontroller-based Ethernet interface to control industrial parameters. The design consists of three main modules: an SPI communication module to interface sensors to the PIC, a controller module using the PIC microcontroller, and an Ethernet interface module using an ENC28J60 Ethernet controller chip. The sensor data is read using SPI, converted to ASCII format by the PIC, and transmitted over Ethernet to allow monitoring via a PC. This network interface allows existing SPI devices to be integrated into an industrial monitoring system and transmit sensor data remotely over a local area network.
This document provides an overview of robotics and embedded systems topics, including definitions of key concepts. It discusses embedded systems, robotics, advanced robotics involving various sensors and modules. It also introduces the ATmega16 microcontroller and programming in Arduino. Finally, it covers interfacing technologies like Bluetooth, Zigbee, GPS and ultrasonic sensors with microcontrollers.
The document provides information about Experiment No. 1 which aims to study IOT microcontrollers Arduino and Raspberry Pi. It describes the hardware components and specifications of the Arduino Uno board including the microcontroller, pins, and programming. It also discusses how to program and use the Arduino board for digital and analog input/output. The document then summarizes the generations and components of the Raspberry Pi 3 Model B microcontroller board including its processor, memory, and wireless capabilities.
This document describes a proposed system for an autonomous robotic vehicle that can detect live humans and assist with earthquake rescue operations. The robot would use a passive infrared (PIR) sensor to detect thermal radiation from live human bodies. It would then immediately alert rescue authorities so help could quickly reach survivors. The robot would be able to maneuver in earthquake areas using motors and precise control. Its goal is to help detect survivors faster than manual search methods, potentially saving lives. It would communicate wirelessly with a control station using Zigbee transmitters. The document outlines the system components, software, advantages like improved safety and accuracy, and potential future enhancements.
IRJET- Centralised Status alert system for industrial machinesIRJET Journal
This document describes a centralized status alert system for monitoring industrial machines. The system uses a master unit and multiple slave units to monitor machines. Each slave unit is installed on a machine and monitors parameters like oil level, temperature, and material levels. If an issue is detected, the slave unit sends an alert to the master unit. The master unit then sends an SMS notification to the control department. The slave units communicate wirelessly with the master unit using NRF24L01 transceivers. The master unit uses GSM to send SMS alerts. This allows real-time monitoring of machines and alerts operators to issues to prevent downtime or damage.
about the evolution of micro processor and micro controller with the help of raspberry pi3 kit explained in detail. with the classification of differences...
This document summarizes the design, development, and implementation of a temperature sensor using Zigbee concepts. The temperature sensor senses the temperature using an LM35 temperature sensor and transmits the data via a Zigbee module. The data is received by another Zigbee module and displayed on an LCD. The system was designed to be accurate, fast, and effective in sensing and transmitting temperature data wirelessly using Zigbee technology. A PIC microcontroller was used to control the temperature sensing, data transmission, and display.
The document describes a quadcopter drone designed by Temple University students to autonomously solve mazes. It uses an Android phone for computer vision and maze solving algorithms. An Arduino board interfaces with ultrasonic sensors to detect obstacles and an IMU for orientation data. The design addresses needs like maze input/solving, obstacle avoidance, and landing zone detection to complete the task of navigating a predefined disaster scenario maze autonomously.
InHand Electronics, Inc. is a leading provider of low-power embedded systems to Original Equipment Manufacturers. Every InHand system includes BatterySmart, InHand’s patented run-time power management suite for battery-operated handheld and wireless devices, such as UMPCs, PDAs, wearable computers, industrial computers and smart sensors.
InHand Electronics, Inc. is a leading provider of compact embedded systems to Original Equipment Manufacturers. Every InHand system includes BatterySmart, InHand’s patented run-time power management suite for battery-operated handheld and wireless devices.
This document discusses a smart card based toll gate automated system. It proposes using smart cards instead of cash to pay tolls. The system would use a microcontroller, smart card reader, LCD display and keypad. Drivers would recharge their smart cards with funds and insert their card at the toll gate, where the amount would be deducted. This avoids the need to carry cash and improves security. The system was simulated using Keil μVision software. It provides a block diagram of the system components and describes the roles of the microcontroller and MAX232 chip in interfacing with the smart card reader.
This document provides an overview of microprocessor architectures and their evolution from the first microprocessor developed by Intel in 1971 to more recent developments. It begins with an introduction to microprocessor architecture and components of a microcomputer system. Subsequent sections describe the evolution of 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit microprocessors developed by Intel and other companies. Examples of assembly language programs for addition are also provided.
This document describes a project using a microcontroller to generate a sine wave. It discusses using an Arduino Uno and Nano microcontrollers, connecting components like a capacitor, LED, and jumper wires. A program is written and uploaded to the Arduino to generate PWM signals approximating a sine wave. The output wave is displayed on the Arduino IDE plotter and using the Nano to read the signal. The project demonstrates how a microcontroller can be used to generate different waveforms.
This document describes the design and implementation of a voice activated, programmable, multipurpose robot. The robot uses a microcontroller and various integrated circuits to enable voice control and wireless control via dual-tone multi-frequency signaling. The document provides details on the circuit design and components, software design in C and Assembly languages, and concludes the robot demonstrates satisfactory performance for applications such as guiding visitors or patients.
Here are the key algorithms used in the program:
1. Obstacle detection algorithm:
- Use infrared sensors to detect obstacles on the right side (RS), front (FS), and left side (LS)
- Check the sensor values - if any of them return 1, an obstacle is detected on that side
2. Obstacle avoidance algorithm:
- If no obstacle detected on any side (RS=FS=LS=0), move forward
- Else if obstacle detected in front only (FS=1, RS=LS=0), turn 45 degrees left
- Else if obstacle detected on right only (RS=1, FS=LS=0), turn 45 degrees right
- Else if obstacle
Rotary RFID Parking Management Solution Controlled By MicrocontrollerIJSRD
This paper led emphasis over the automatic parking system. The reason behind this research work is to eradicate the traffic problem arise during the rush hours in day time. Implementation of intelligent parking also helpful in security purpose this research paper is based on RFID based technology along with IR communication. The main governing body is microcontroller. RFID means radio frequency identification, this technology has been used for since last two decades, reason behind this technology is quite straight as it is capable of providing new services and convenience in retail environment. This technology is very reliable as well as very user friendly. This also ease the security purpose, this also reduced time consumption of user. This research involved following components (a) IR based communication, (b) RFID Module, (c) Microcontroller ATmega328.
Global System for Mobile Communication Based Smart Home Security SystemIJERA Editor
Home security system is needed for occupants' convenience and safety. In this paper, we present the design and implementation of an affordable, low power consumption, and GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) based wireless home security system. In existing system, the home network is engaged with non-wireless technology, where the installation and maintenance is difficult. So the system cost is very high. In our proposed system, these difficulties are overcome by introducing a wireless home network which contains a GPRS Gateway and three kinds of security nodes namely door security node, anti intrusion node and SMS node to inform the user. The nodes are easy installing. All the three nodes are connected to the microcontroller.
Real Time Atomization of agriculture system for the modernization of indian a...SHAMEER C M
The document discusses a system to automate irrigation in Indian agriculture using ARM7 and GSM technology. It involves an ARM7 microprocessor connected to sensors like temperature, water level, light, and humidity sensors. GSM is used to control irrigation in the field and send sensor data via SMS to users. The system aims to modernize Indian agriculture by providing real-time field conditions and adequate irrigation. Embedded systems and advantages are discussed. Key hardware includes the ARM7 microcontroller, sensors, GSM modem, and LCD. Analog to digital conversion is also summarized. The system automates irrigation based on sensor data and informs users of field conditions remotely via SMS.
The document provides a brief history of Intel processors from 1971 to 2000. It summarizes each processor model, highlighting key specs and their impact. The 4004 was Intel's first microprocessor, powering calculators. The 8008 was twice as powerful. The 8080 was used in the Altair, inspiring the PC revolution. The 8088 powered the IBM PC. Later chips like the 286, 386, and 486 added more power and capabilities. The Pentium brought multimedia and became a household name. Advances continued with models like the Celeron, Xeon, and Pentium 4, bringing more performance for applications like video and internet use.
This document outlines a 6 week professional training program on embedded systems and robotics presented by Rajesh Kumar. It covers topics such as microcontrollers, embedded system applications, robotics concepts and laws, sensors and actuators, programming microcontrollers, and interfacing with devices like LCDs. The training includes both theoretical and practical hands-on lessons to teach embedded system and robotic design and applications.
This document describes WHYP, a version of Forth designed for embedded systems. WHYP can be used on Motorola 68HC11 and 68332 microcontrollers. It allows interactive development on a PC connected to the target system. WHYP words are executed as subroutines on the target. The document provides an example of using WHYP to design a digital compass that reads analog hall-effect sensors and displays the reading on 7-segment displays.
The anatomic relationship between the the insertion of the infraspinatus jou...uncp
This study aimed to evaluate the topographic relationship between the morphology of the greater tubercle of the humerus and the insertion of the infraspinatus tendon. The researchers identified a triangular "lateral impression" on the greater tubercle in dry bone samples. Micro-CT imaging of cadaveric humeri showed the anterior border of the lateral impression corresponded to the insertion of the infraspinatus tendon. The lateral impression provides a new anatomical concept that could help diagnose and repair infraspinatus tears using preoperative 3D imaging.
The document presents a marketing plan for a new target market of female consumers of condoms. It begins with a situation analysis and identifies the problem of low female condom usage. The solution overview proposes expanding into the female market with new packaging, emphasis on quality, and a promotional strategy. The marketing objectives are to increase market share and enhance the brand image by appealing to women.
Este documento presenta el reglamento interno del Aula de Innovación Pedagógica y Centro de Recursos Tecnológicos de la Institución Educativa "José Leonardo Ortiz". Describe los servicios y actividades que se desarrollan en estos espacios educativos, así como los roles y responsabilidades de los docentes, estudiantes, directivos, padres de familia y APAFA en relación al uso adecuado de las tecnologías de la información y comunicación con fines pedagógicos.
IRJET- Centralised Status alert system for industrial machinesIRJET Journal
This document describes a centralized status alert system for monitoring industrial machines. The system uses a master unit and multiple slave units to monitor machines. Each slave unit is installed on a machine and monitors parameters like oil level, temperature, and material levels. If an issue is detected, the slave unit sends an alert to the master unit. The master unit then sends an SMS notification to the control department. The slave units communicate wirelessly with the master unit using NRF24L01 transceivers. The master unit uses GSM to send SMS alerts. This allows real-time monitoring of machines and alerts operators to issues to prevent downtime or damage.
about the evolution of micro processor and micro controller with the help of raspberry pi3 kit explained in detail. with the classification of differences...
This document summarizes the design, development, and implementation of a temperature sensor using Zigbee concepts. The temperature sensor senses the temperature using an LM35 temperature sensor and transmits the data via a Zigbee module. The data is received by another Zigbee module and displayed on an LCD. The system was designed to be accurate, fast, and effective in sensing and transmitting temperature data wirelessly using Zigbee technology. A PIC microcontroller was used to control the temperature sensing, data transmission, and display.
The document describes a quadcopter drone designed by Temple University students to autonomously solve mazes. It uses an Android phone for computer vision and maze solving algorithms. An Arduino board interfaces with ultrasonic sensors to detect obstacles and an IMU for orientation data. The design addresses needs like maze input/solving, obstacle avoidance, and landing zone detection to complete the task of navigating a predefined disaster scenario maze autonomously.
InHand Electronics, Inc. is a leading provider of low-power embedded systems to Original Equipment Manufacturers. Every InHand system includes BatterySmart, InHand’s patented run-time power management suite for battery-operated handheld and wireless devices, such as UMPCs, PDAs, wearable computers, industrial computers and smart sensors.
InHand Electronics, Inc. is a leading provider of compact embedded systems to Original Equipment Manufacturers. Every InHand system includes BatterySmart, InHand’s patented run-time power management suite for battery-operated handheld and wireless devices.
This document discusses a smart card based toll gate automated system. It proposes using smart cards instead of cash to pay tolls. The system would use a microcontroller, smart card reader, LCD display and keypad. Drivers would recharge their smart cards with funds and insert their card at the toll gate, where the amount would be deducted. This avoids the need to carry cash and improves security. The system was simulated using Keil μVision software. It provides a block diagram of the system components and describes the roles of the microcontroller and MAX232 chip in interfacing with the smart card reader.
This document provides an overview of microprocessor architectures and their evolution from the first microprocessor developed by Intel in 1971 to more recent developments. It begins with an introduction to microprocessor architecture and components of a microcomputer system. Subsequent sections describe the evolution of 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit microprocessors developed by Intel and other companies. Examples of assembly language programs for addition are also provided.
This document describes a project using a microcontroller to generate a sine wave. It discusses using an Arduino Uno and Nano microcontrollers, connecting components like a capacitor, LED, and jumper wires. A program is written and uploaded to the Arduino to generate PWM signals approximating a sine wave. The output wave is displayed on the Arduino IDE plotter and using the Nano to read the signal. The project demonstrates how a microcontroller can be used to generate different waveforms.
This document describes the design and implementation of a voice activated, programmable, multipurpose robot. The robot uses a microcontroller and various integrated circuits to enable voice control and wireless control via dual-tone multi-frequency signaling. The document provides details on the circuit design and components, software design in C and Assembly languages, and concludes the robot demonstrates satisfactory performance for applications such as guiding visitors or patients.
Here are the key algorithms used in the program:
1. Obstacle detection algorithm:
- Use infrared sensors to detect obstacles on the right side (RS), front (FS), and left side (LS)
- Check the sensor values - if any of them return 1, an obstacle is detected on that side
2. Obstacle avoidance algorithm:
- If no obstacle detected on any side (RS=FS=LS=0), move forward
- Else if obstacle detected in front only (FS=1, RS=LS=0), turn 45 degrees left
- Else if obstacle detected on right only (RS=1, FS=LS=0), turn 45 degrees right
- Else if obstacle
Rotary RFID Parking Management Solution Controlled By MicrocontrollerIJSRD
This paper led emphasis over the automatic parking system. The reason behind this research work is to eradicate the traffic problem arise during the rush hours in day time. Implementation of intelligent parking also helpful in security purpose this research paper is based on RFID based technology along with IR communication. The main governing body is microcontroller. RFID means radio frequency identification, this technology has been used for since last two decades, reason behind this technology is quite straight as it is capable of providing new services and convenience in retail environment. This technology is very reliable as well as very user friendly. This also ease the security purpose, this also reduced time consumption of user. This research involved following components (a) IR based communication, (b) RFID Module, (c) Microcontroller ATmega328.
Global System for Mobile Communication Based Smart Home Security SystemIJERA Editor
Home security system is needed for occupants' convenience and safety. In this paper, we present the design and implementation of an affordable, low power consumption, and GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) based wireless home security system. In existing system, the home network is engaged with non-wireless technology, where the installation and maintenance is difficult. So the system cost is very high. In our proposed system, these difficulties are overcome by introducing a wireless home network which contains a GPRS Gateway and three kinds of security nodes namely door security node, anti intrusion node and SMS node to inform the user. The nodes are easy installing. All the three nodes are connected to the microcontroller.
Real Time Atomization of agriculture system for the modernization of indian a...SHAMEER C M
The document discusses a system to automate irrigation in Indian agriculture using ARM7 and GSM technology. It involves an ARM7 microprocessor connected to sensors like temperature, water level, light, and humidity sensors. GSM is used to control irrigation in the field and send sensor data via SMS to users. The system aims to modernize Indian agriculture by providing real-time field conditions and adequate irrigation. Embedded systems and advantages are discussed. Key hardware includes the ARM7 microcontroller, sensors, GSM modem, and LCD. Analog to digital conversion is also summarized. The system automates irrigation based on sensor data and informs users of field conditions remotely via SMS.
The document provides a brief history of Intel processors from 1971 to 2000. It summarizes each processor model, highlighting key specs and their impact. The 4004 was Intel's first microprocessor, powering calculators. The 8008 was twice as powerful. The 8080 was used in the Altair, inspiring the PC revolution. The 8088 powered the IBM PC. Later chips like the 286, 386, and 486 added more power and capabilities. The Pentium brought multimedia and became a household name. Advances continued with models like the Celeron, Xeon, and Pentium 4, bringing more performance for applications like video and internet use.
This document outlines a 6 week professional training program on embedded systems and robotics presented by Rajesh Kumar. It covers topics such as microcontrollers, embedded system applications, robotics concepts and laws, sensors and actuators, programming microcontrollers, and interfacing with devices like LCDs. The training includes both theoretical and practical hands-on lessons to teach embedded system and robotic design and applications.
This document describes WHYP, a version of Forth designed for embedded systems. WHYP can be used on Motorola 68HC11 and 68332 microcontrollers. It allows interactive development on a PC connected to the target system. WHYP words are executed as subroutines on the target. The document provides an example of using WHYP to design a digital compass that reads analog hall-effect sensors and displays the reading on 7-segment displays.
The anatomic relationship between the the insertion of the infraspinatus jou...uncp
This study aimed to evaluate the topographic relationship between the morphology of the greater tubercle of the humerus and the insertion of the infraspinatus tendon. The researchers identified a triangular "lateral impression" on the greater tubercle in dry bone samples. Micro-CT imaging of cadaveric humeri showed the anterior border of the lateral impression corresponded to the insertion of the infraspinatus tendon. The lateral impression provides a new anatomical concept that could help diagnose and repair infraspinatus tears using preoperative 3D imaging.
The document presents a marketing plan for a new target market of female consumers of condoms. It begins with a situation analysis and identifies the problem of low female condom usage. The solution overview proposes expanding into the female market with new packaging, emphasis on quality, and a promotional strategy. The marketing objectives are to increase market share and enhance the brand image by appealing to women.
Este documento presenta el reglamento interno del Aula de Innovación Pedagógica y Centro de Recursos Tecnológicos de la Institución Educativa "José Leonardo Ortiz". Describe los servicios y actividades que se desarrollan en estos espacios educativos, así como los roles y responsabilidades de los docentes, estudiantes, directivos, padres de familia y APAFA en relación al uso adecuado de las tecnologías de la información y comunicación con fines pedagógicos.
The Cartoon Factory is a portfolio of cartoon illustrations. It contains a variety of cartoon characters and scenes in different styles. Overall the portfolio showcases the artist's talent and range in creating fun and engaging cartoons.
The document discusses the benefits of meditation for reducing stress and anxiety. Regular meditation practice can help calm the mind and body by lowering heart rate and blood pressure. Making meditation a part of a daily routine, even if just 10-15 minutes per day, can offer significant health benefits over time such as improved focus, better sleep, and a more positive outlook.
Studio Three Architects is an award-winning architecture practice based in Liverpool. They have been delivering exciting yet practical design projects since 2003. The studio is motivated by a desire to contribute positively to the built environment through high-quality, people-focused design that enhances lives without necessarily costing more. Their projects include the Chavasse Park Pavilion, St Frideswyde's Church, work for Chester Cathedral, and the Sandiholme residence.
A presentation may at the American Educational Research Association conference in Vancouver on Saturday 14th April. It explores the transition that two teacher educators made from being teachers to teachers of teachers and challenges the expectation that prior experience is easily transferred from one context to another.
Games-Making: What we know and future research agendaAshley Casey
Recent Presentation to the American Educational Research Association's Annual Meeting, New Orleans 2011. Research on learning and instruction in Physical Education Special Interest Group.
A Narrative Inquiry in physical educationAshley Casey
Presentation at AIESEP Madrid 2015 - A Narrative Inquiry into the negotiation of the dominant stories of physical education: Living, telling, re-telling, and re-living
This document summarizes a longitudinal study on the residual effects of cooperative learning. The study found that cooperative learning had positive residual effects on students' motor skills, social skills, and beliefs about skill development. It also found that students were able to transfer cooperative learning skills to other contexts and felt more motivated and able to progress in their learning. The changing role of the teacher to a facilitator was initially challenging but allowed for a more student-centered approach where students learned from and taught each other.
A presentation on my reflective journey as a teacher of physical education made to the 16th International Reflective Practice conference, University of Bedfordshire, June 2010.
Developing a Pedagogy of Technology in Physical EducationAshley Casey
The document discusses the need for a pedagogy of technology in physical education. It argues that technology is often introduced into education without fully considering pedagogical principles and how the technology can best support teaching and learning. Educators need to focus first on what they want to achieve pedagogically before introducing new technologies. The document examines different definitions of pedagogy and reviews literature showing that technology has been underutilized in physical education classrooms. It advocates developing an understanding of pedagogical dimensions for effective technological integration, including technical knowledge, awareness of opportunities and limitations, and applying a pedagogy of technology.
A comparison between the old and the new using student-designed games Ashley Casey
1. The study compared traditional PE curriculum focused on sports with a games making approach where students designed their own games.
2. Students in the games making approach reported increased motivation and enjoyment in PE compared to the traditional approach, and appreciated being able to be creative and make up their own rules.
3. Students developed a better understanding of game structures and design through deconstructing and reconstructing games, including considering factors like scoring methods and rules for out of bounds balls.
The point of publication is not the end of your research but the start. This presentation considers the "what now?" questions and ask you to think bigger than just publication.
Research in physical education suggests that things are not changing as they might (and perhaps haven't for forty years). In short, we are living out our own collective "Groundhog Day". This keynote will explore some of these repetitive messages and what we can do about them. It's a whistle stop tour, but one that hopefully takes us toward greater benefits for our students.
NB:
The picture of the television links to a youtube video - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tSVeDx9fk60
The recording of the address can be found https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZNiLEAdmN4
The document discusses data acquisition systems. It provides an overview of data acquisition hardware and software. The key points are:
1. Data acquisition systems are used to measure or control physical characteristics in the real world by acquiring data through sensors, conditioning signals, converting to digital, and storing.
2. Data acquisition hardware interfaces sensors to a computer and can include modules, cards, and standards like CAMAC, Ethernet, and USB.
3. Data acquisition software is needed for the hardware to work with a PC and includes programming languages like C++, BASIC, and LabView.
4. Benefits of data acquisition systems include reduced data redundancy, improved integrity, and lower costs.
Difference Between Microprocessors and Microcontrollerselprocus
A microprocessor is an electronic computer component crafted from miniature sized transistors & some other circuitry elements on a solitary semi-conductor IC (integrated circuit) or micro chip. Microcontroller is a computer on‐a‐chip optimized to manage electric gadgets. It is intended particularly for precise tasks like controlling a particular system.
This document provides an overview of embedded systems presented in a seminar by a student. It defines an embedded system as a specialized computer system that is part of a larger machine. Embedded systems are used in appliances, vehicles, and other devices. Typical hardware includes microprocessors, microcontrollers, memory, and I/O ports. Popular embedded operating systems are also discussed. Examples of where embedded systems are used everyday are provided. The 8051 microcontroller architecture is then explained in detail.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several generations of microprocessors including their increasing transistor counts, decreasing feature sizes, higher clock speeds, and wider data buses. It also discusses the evolution into different categories like dedicated controllers, bit-slice processors, and general purpose CPUs. Key microprocessors highlighted include the Intel 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium lines.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several generations of microprocessors including their increasing transistor counts, decreasing feature sizes, higher clock speeds, and wider data buses. It also discusses the evolution into different categories like dedicated controllers, bit-slice processors, and general purpose CPUs. Key microprocessors highlighted include the Intel 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium lines.
What is Microcontroller, Microcontroller vs Microprocessor, Development/Classication of microcontrollers, Harvard vs. Princeton Architecture, RISC AND CISC CONTROLLERS
Features of RISC, Microcontroller for Embedded Systems
10 x86 PC Embedded Applications, Choosing a Microcontroller
Criteria for Choosing a Microcontroller, Mechatronics, and Microcontrollers, A brief history of the PIC microcontroller, PIC Microcontrollers, Feature: PIC16F877, Simplied Features.
The document discusses microcontrollers, including:
- What a microcontroller is, its basic anatomy and how it works to serve as a bridge between the physical and digital worlds.
- The main components of a microcontroller including the CPU, memory, I/O ports, timers, and ADC/DAC.
- Types of microcontrollers such as 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit varieties as well as external vs embedded memory architectures.
- Popular microcontroller families like 8051, PIC, AVR, and ARM.
- Applications of microcontrollers in devices like home appliances, industrial equipment, and computers.
The document discusses microcontrollers and microprocessors. It defines a microcontroller as a programmable digital processor with integrated peripherals that can operate as a standalone system. A microcontroller is compared to a Swiss army knife for its multifunctional nature. The key differences between microcontrollers and microprocessors are that microcontrollers have on-chip memory and integrated peripherals, require less external components, and are used for dedicated applications, while microprocessors require external memory and are more general purpose. Modern microcontroller features and the internal architecture of the Intel 8051 microcontroller are also described.
Microprocessors are electronic circuits that function as the central processing unit (CPU) of computers and other electronic devices. They incorporate arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry to perform computational tasks. Early microprocessors from the 1970s contained only a few thousand transistors, while modern microprocessors can contain over a billion transistors. Microprocessors are manufactured using complex semiconductor fabrication techniques involving deposition and etching of thin layers to build up the transistor circuits. They are key components that power all modern computers and many other electronic devices.
Project report on embedded system using 8051 microcontrollerVandna Sambyal
The document describes a home security prototype project that was developed using an 8051 microcontroller to control various devices like LEDs, DC motors, relays and sensors. It provides details on the circuit diagram and working of the home security system, which uses components like a microcontroller, motion sensor, door sensor and siren to detect intrusion and alert users. The document also includes information on microcontrollers, their architecture, programming and how to interface them with external devices.
The document discusses the 8085 microprocessor. It provides details on its architecture, components, registers, addressing modes, and applications. The key points are:
1. The 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor that serves as the central processing unit of a computer. It contains an ALU, registers, and a control unit.
2. It has general purpose registers like the accumulator, flags, program counter, and stack pointer. Instructions are fetched and executed sequentially.
3. The 8085 supports various addressing modes like immediate, register, direct, and indirect addressing to access memory locations and transfer data.
4. Microprocessors are used in applications like instrumentation, control systems, communication devices,
The document discusses the 8085 microprocessor. It provides details on its architecture, components, registers, addressing modes, and applications. Some key points:
- The 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor that serves as the central processing unit of a computer. It contains an ALU, registers, flag registers and more.
- It has various addressing modes like immediate, register, direct, and indirect to access memory locations and transfer data.
- Registers like the accumulator, program counter, and stack pointer help process instructions and move data. Flag registers store status codes.
- Applications include uses in calculators, industrial controllers, communication systems, office automation, and more due to its low cost
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several key processors throughout history like the Intel 8085, an 8-bit processor that was popular in the late 1970s/early 1980s. The document also provides details on the architecture and features of the Intel 8085 microprocessor, including its registers, ALU, address and data buses, instruction set, and interrupt handling capabilities.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and Intel 8008 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several important processors throughout history like the Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Intel 8086, and Motorola 68000. It also provides details about the Intel 8085 8-bit microprocessor, including its architecture, registers, signals, and features. The evolution has progressed from dedicated controllers to general purpose CPUs with increasing bits, speed, memory capacity, and functionality.
An embedded system is a combination of hardware, software, and mechanical components designed to perform a dedicated function. It consists of a microprocessor or microcontroller along with other components like sensors, actuators, and memory. The microprocessor runs software that controls the system based on inputs from sensors or users. Examples of embedded systems include washing machines, air conditioners, and other devices that perform automated tasks. An embedded system is tailored for a specific application and does not require an operating system like a general purpose computer.
Project Report On Micro-controller Embedded SystemRkrishna Mishra
The document provides an overview of embedded systems and the 8051 microcontroller architecture. It discusses how embedded systems perform predefined tasks to control devices and can be optimized for size and cost. The 8051 is then introduced as a popular 8-bit microcontroller used in embedded systems. Its features include 4KB program memory, 128B data memory, 32 general purpose registers, timers, and I/O ports. Application areas of the 8051 like energy management, automobiles, and medical devices are outlined. Finally, the document describes the 8051 architecture in detail, including the pinout, programming model, and accumulator register.
The document provides an introduction to microcontrollers, specifically focusing on the Intel 8051 microcontroller. It defines microcontrollers and distinguishes them from microprocessors by noting that microcontrollers contain peripherals like RAM, ROM, I/O ports and timers on a single chip, while microprocessors require external circuitry. It then describes the architecture and features of the Intel 8051 microcontroller, including its 4KB program memory, 128 bytes of data memory, 32 general purpose registers, two timers, interrupts and I/O ports. Development tools for microcontrollers like editors, assemblers, compilers and debuggers/simulators are also discussed.
In these presentation it contain introduction of micro-controller and micro-processor and it's difference. it's uses in daily life and their application. discuss different pins of microprocessor 8085.
I hope it will help in your Presentation.
This document provides an introduction to microcontrollers, including their architecture and applications. It begins by defining a microcontroller as an electronic device containing a processor, memory, and peripherals on a single chip. Microcontrollers are then compared to microprocessors, noting that microcontrollers contain RAM, ROM, I/O ports and other components internally, while microprocessors require external components. The document outlines the common components of a microcontroller's architecture, including the CPU, memory types, timers/counters, and analog-digital converters. It also discusses the Harvard and Von Neumann architectures and compares instruction sets. Applications of microcontrollers include devices like appliances, robots, and automobiles.
The chapter Lifelines of National Economy in Class 10 Geography focuses on the various modes of transportation and communication that play a vital role in the economic development of a country. These lifelines are crucial for the movement of goods, services, and people, thereby connecting different regions and promoting economic activities.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
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A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
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Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
1. Ch01_Gadre 8/16/00 1:24 PM Page 1
1
INTRODUCTION
T his book is about the Atmel’s AVR RISC microcontroller series. It covers architecture,
design, and usage of this controller in various sample applications. Atmel Corporation
(www.atmel.com) is a leading manufacturer of integrated circuits (ICs). AVR is the name
of a microcontroller series that Atmel produces and that is the subject of this book. RISC
(Reduced Instruction Set Computer) is a popular architecture for modern processors (more
about RISC in a later chapter).
Before we get into the details, let us see why it is important to learn about microcon-
trollers in general and the AVR RISC series in particular. A recent white paper by Sun
Microsystems, on picoJava Microprocessor core architecture claims that an average home,
by the end of the decade, will contain between 50 to 100 microcontrollers controlling dig-
ital phones, microwave ovens, VCRs, televisions sets and television remotes, dishwashers,
home security systems, PDAs, etc. Even though this may only reflect the position of a typ-
ical home in the advanced countries, there is no denying that even this reflects a huge vol-
ume of the microcontroller and microprocessor usage in the home environment. Besides
home use, another area that is fueling the microcontroller growth is electronic commerce.
With the advent of “smart cards,” which have much more storage capacity than the more
conventional magnetic cards and are more reliable, these devices are all set to replace
paper currency, which means that a humongous number of people will be using the smart
cards. There is even more: An average car has about 15 processors; the 1999 Mercedes
S-class car has 63 microprocessors, while the 1999 BMW has 65 processors! In fact,
1
2. Ch01_Gadre 8/16/00 1:24 PM Page 2
2 INTRODUCTION
except perhaps the human body, microprocessors and microcontrollers have gotten into
everything around us (and even that may not be completely true—it would not be surpris-
ing if a heart pacemaker is microprocessor controlled).
Microcontrollers or microprocessors are easier to use as a controller than say a dedi-
cated digital state machine in a system such as a washing machine, for example, cheaper
to upgrade, and require less inventory; all issues critical for maintaining economic viabil-
ity and profit in the face of cutthroat competition—thus this great rush for microcon-
trollers and microprocessors. Given the mass usage of microcontrollers in devices, sys-
tems, and consumer components, it is obvious where the money is.
So we want to learn about microcontrollers and microprocessors. However, you might
have noticed that I have used these terms interchangeably and rather loosely. It is time to
consider what a microcontroller really is and how it differs from a microprocessor.
1.1 Microcontroller, Microcomputer,
or Microprocessor?
It is common to hear these terms being used interchangeably. However, each is quite dis-
tinct from the other and it is important to understand the differences at this point.
A microprocessor is a central processing unit (CPU) on a single chip. In the olden
times, the CPU was designed using many medium/large scale integrated (MSI, LSI) chips.
Intel, with its 4004, put all the components of a CPU—arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
instruction decoder, registers, bus control circuit, etc.—on a single chip, and so the micro-
processor was born. The 4004 was a 4-bit (i.e., it processed data in chunks of 4 bits at a
time) microprocessor designed to be the number cruncher in a calculator.
When a microprocessor and associated support circuitry, peripheral I/O components
and memory (program as well as data) were put together to form a small computer specif-
ically for data acquisition and control applications, it was called a microcomputer.
So if I were to design a circuit with a popular microprocessor 8088 or for that matter
even the 8085, put in EPROM for storing the program, RAM for storing variables and
results and a few I/O interface chips for interacting with the external world, I would have
put together a microcomputer.
In a logical extension, when the components that make a microcomputer were put
together on a single chip of silicon, it was called the microcontroller. Texas Instruments is
credited with creating the first microcontroller, the TMS1000 series. The TMS1000 series
microcontrollers had enough RAM, ROM, and I/O and were used as microwave oven con-
trollers, in industrial timers, and in calculators.
Today there are many microcontroller families: Intel’s 8048 and 8051, Motorola’s
68HC11, Zilog’s Z8, Microchip’s PIC, Hitachi’s H8, and now Atmel’s AVR. A microcon-
troller family indicates the availability of many different microcontrollers with the same
basic central core but different peripherals, packaging, operating speed options, etc.
Even though the definitions for a microprocessor, a microcomputer, and a microcontroller
are clear and unambiguous, it is quite common to see these terms being used loosely and
interchangeably. This fuzziness in terms exists and we will have to live with it. For our
3. Ch01_Gadre 8/16/00 1:24 PM Page 3
DO YOU NEED A MICROCONTROLLER? 3
work we will use the term microcontroller for a chip with on-chip memory and peripheral
I/O capability (ports, timers, serial port, etc.) besides the CPU.
The Atmel’s AVR controller, with its on-chip program and memory, I/O ports, timers,
and serial port, is a microcontroller, as it certainly satisfies the above criteria.
1.2 Do You Need a Microcontroller?
Looking at the needs, decide whether it can be done simply. It requires substantial invest-
ment of time, money, and effort to put together a reliable microcontroller-based system.
The advantages are small overheads when upgrading the system with small changes. It also
helps to keep the inventory to a relatively small number of components.
Possible alternatives are:
1. A dedicated digital circuit,
2. A digital circuit based on a PLD (programmable logic device),
3. An application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) based implementation.
The above-mentioned alternatives to microprocessors are quite similar and differ in
only the implementation. A dedicated digital circuit might use discrete ICs for the vari-
ous logic functions (AND, OR, XOR, etc.) while a digital circuit based on a PLD would
be more compact given the programmable nature of a PLD. A PLD contains an array of
various logic function blocks, the user selects the required functionality, and the inter-
connection between these functional blocks at the design level, thereby achieving a more
integrated and compact solution. A PLD has a substantial amount of hardware, of which
only a fraction gets utilized in average applications. The ASIC solution is like a PLD
except that it is an optimized implementation.
Figure 1.1 is the circuit diagram for implementing an hypothetical logic equation using
individual digital ICs. These logic gates, as seen in Figure 1.1, are available in various logic
families (TTL, CMOS, etc.). The figure illustrates the IC numbers for the TTL family. To
implement this equation, we need 3 ICs with about 57 percent utilization (the 7404 IC has
6 gates and we have used 3 of them, while the 7408 and 7432 has 4 gates each, of which
we have used 5 gates—8 gates in all out of 14 available gates, i.e., a utilization factor of
.57). The same equation is now implemented using a PLD (such as 16L8).
Figure 1.2 illustrates the internals of a PLD implementation. Each intersection in the AND
array represents an AND gate, while each intersection in the OR array represents an OR gate.
For this solution, we only need 1 IC. The PLD in Figure 1.2 has about 150 gates, of which
we have used only about 12, representing a mere 8 percent utilization! (The actual 16L8 if
used for this circuit has more hardware than seen in Figure 1.2.) A PLD-based circuit is
also more power-consuming than a comparable ASIC circuit, which is due to the redun-
dant hardware on the PLD chip.
In contrast, a microprocessor-based (in fact an Atmel AVR processor-based) circuit is
illustrated in Figure 1.3. It is as small as the PLD-based circuit, and in terms of power
consumption, is better than a PLD circuit. In terms of speed, the PLD will perform much
faster than a processor. Of course, for the microprocessor circuit to work correctly, it must
4. Ch01_Gadre 8/16/00 1:24 PM Page 4
4 INTRODUCTION
A N1
A1
O1
A4 Output= ((/A*B) + (/B*A))*(C*/D)
B A2
N2
N1, N2, N3=7404
C A1, A2, A3, A4=7408
A3 O1=7432
D N3
FIGURE 1.1 A digital circuit implemented using TTL ICs.
C*/D
A*/B
/A*B ((/A*B) + (A*/B))*(C*/D)
A
B
C AND Array
D
Output = ((/A*B) + (A*/B))*(C*/D)
OR
Array (/A*B) + (A*/B)
C*/D
(internal connections)
FIGURE 1.2 The digital circuit in Figure 1.1 implemented using a PLD.
5. Ch01_Gadre 8/16/00 1:24 PM Page 5
WHY THE ATMEL’S AVR MICROCONTROLLER? 5
AT90S1200
A PB0
B PB1
PB4 Output
C PB2
D PB3 FIGURE 1.3 An AVR microcon-
troller-based imple-
mentation for the logic
equation.
be programmed correctly. The program to implement our logic equation is discussed in a
later chapter.
While we are trying to portray the microprocessor circuit in a positive light, it is
worthwhile to be able to remember the relative merits and demerits of each implemen-
tation. It is not that the microprocessor is the solution to all problems. Sometimes you
need to use a PLD in conjunction with a processor, and sometimes a PLD alone is
required. One such implementation of a processor and a PLD working together is the
subject of a later chapter.
1.3 Why the Atmel’s AVR
Microcontroller?
Whether a particular requirement needs to be implemented using discrete ICs or PLDs or
a microprocessor must be determined by the designer. However, many applications could
be suitably implemented using microcontrollers, and a great many of them would benefit
from using the AVR as outlined briefly below.
We will discuss the AVR features in detail in later chapters, but at this point it may be
useful to outline the salient features. Atmel’s AVR RISC family of controllers has the fol-
lowing features:
1. RISC architecture with mostly fixed-length instruction, load-store memory access,
and 32 general-purpose registers.
2. A two-stage instruction pipeline that speeds up execution.
3. Majority of instructions take one clock cycle.
4. Up to 10-MHz clock operation.
5. Wide variety of on-chip peripherals, including digital I/O, ADC, EEPROM, Timer,
UART, RTC timer, pulse width modulator (PWM), etc.
6. Internal program and data memory.
7. In-system programmable.
8. Available in 8-pin to 64-pin package size to suit wide variety of applications.
9. Up to 12 times performance speedup over conventional CISC controllers.
6. Ch01_Gadre 8/16/00 1:24 PM Page 6
6 INTRODUCTION
10. Wide operating voltage from 2.7 V to 6.0 V .
11. A simple architecture offers a small learning curve to the uninitiated.
What does the name AVR stand for? Atmel says that it is just a name. However, AVR
seems to have the initials of the people who designed the controller.
1.4 Organization of This Book
The book has three logical sections:
1. Introduction and preliminary discussion about microcontrollers and AVR controller
details. These are covered in Chapters 1 to 4.
2. System design using the AVR RISC controllers. Issues include system design, code
development, software and hardware interfacing the AVR to the outside world. These
aspects are covered in Chapters 5 to 9.
3. Sample applications are covered in the rest of the chapters, and these illustrate how the
AVR controller could be used in real applications.
The idea is to present the material in a format that is easily accessible to readers of vary-
ing interests. Beginners could start from the initial chapters and work their way up till the
very end. An individual with some experience with microcontrollers could, on the other
hand, skip the initial chapters in Section 1 and pick up where new material is presented.
However, the last section on applications could be a starting point for beginners as well as
experienced users to give perspective. The sample applications illustrate the various ways
in which this versatile family of controllers could be used and could well be a starting point
for a beginner.
The middle sections deal with the specifics of the AVR controller family and how to get
an application up and running, how to develop code, and the various tools available in the
form of assemblers, compilers, simulators, evaluation and prototyping boards. I have sam-
pled a few of these commercial and freeware offerings, and I present my opinion about
these products in these sections.
1.5 Timing Diagram Conventions
Timing diagrams are the key to understanding digital circuits and systems. Timing dia-
grams illustrate how the signals of a circuit vary as a function of time, as well as the inter-
play between the signals. They are the starting point in describing the way a circuit or a
system ought to work, and after a circuit has been designed, the timing diagrams tell the
readers how the circuit or the system works. In turn, if this circuit is being used as a sub-
system in a larger design, its associated timing diagram will determine how it fits into the
larger system or how the larger system is to be designed to accommodate the smaller sub-
circuit. (Figure 1.4.)
7. Ch01_Gadre 8/16/00 1:24 PM Page 7
TIMING DIAGRAM CONVENTIONS 7
Supply Voltage
High level
1. A low-level signal is zero voltage
Zero Voltage
(actually a range of voltage around Low level
zero), and a high-level signal is
supply voltage (or a range around it). High level
2. Transition of a low-level signal to Low level Transition
high level.
3. Transition of a high-level signal to High level
a low level.
Low level
Parallel Signals
4. Transition of a bunch of parallel
signals (called BUS) from one level
to another. Transition
5. A signal that goes in a high-
impedance state, also called a floating
signal.
Floating (high impedence)
duration of the signal
FIGURE 1.4 Timing diagrams.
Together with a circuit diagram, it is the electrical engineer’s equivalent of an architec-
tural plan of a building. A circuit diagram and the associated timing diagram completely
and exactly describe the circuit’s working. (Figures 1.5, 1.6.)
To understand circuits and the timing diagrams, we must follow a uniform convention.
To describe the various states a digital circuit operates in, we have a number of symbols.
This section defines the conventions we will follow in this text.
8. Ch01_Gadre 8/16/00 1:24 PM Page 8
8 INTRODUCTION
6. A BUS with floating signals.
Duration of the signal when it is
in high impedance, floating state
7. A change of condition on one signal
causes a transition on another signal.
The example shows a high-to-low signal
transition causing a high-to-low-level
transition on another signal.
8. A transition on a signal causes a
transition on a BUS.
FIGURE 1.5 More timing diagrams.
9. Ch01_Gadre 8/16/00 1:24 PM Page 9
TIMING DIAGRAM CONVENTIONS 9
9. More than 1 condition must exist to force
a transition of signals on the BUS. Example
shows that a transition on one signal during
the time when the other signal is at high
level causes a transition on the BUS signals.
10. A condition on a signal causes changes
on more than one signal level. The example
shows that a high-to-low transition on one
signal causes a high-to-low transition on the
second signal and a pulse on another signal.
FIGURE 1.6 And some more timing diagrams.