The document provides an overview of microprocessors and assembly language programming. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit designs to modern 64-bit designs containing millions of transistors. It describes the basic components of a microprocessor including the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, and bus. It also discusses instruction execution in fetch and execute cycles and how microprocessors are classified based on capabilities and characteristics such as RISC vs CISC designs. Assembly language programming allows microprocessors to receive instructions in machine-readable form.
The document discusses data acquisition systems. It provides an overview of data acquisition hardware and software. The key points are:
1. Data acquisition systems are used to measure or control physical characteristics in the real world by acquiring data through sensors, conditioning signals, converting to digital, and storing.
2. Data acquisition hardware interfaces sensors to a computer and can include modules, cards, and standards like CAMAC, Ethernet, and USB.
3. Data acquisition software is needed for the hardware to work with a PC and includes programming languages like C++, BASIC, and LabView.
4. Benefits of data acquisition systems include reduced data redundancy, improved integrity, and lower costs.
The document discusses the central processing unit (CPU) or microprocessor, which is the component of a computer that executes programs and processes data. It contains several processing cores that allow it to perform multiple tasks simultaneously. Modern microprocessors can contain billions of transistors and operate at gigahertz speeds, allowing them to perform vast numbers of calculations in seconds. They execute instructions in a sequential fashion using a system of registers, memory, and an arithmetic logic unit.
The microprocessor is a central processing unit contained on a single chip. It acts as the brain of the computer and controls all other components. As technology has advanced, microprocessors have become faster, smaller, and more powerful over time. A computer uses a microprocessor as its CPU and is called a microcomputer. The microprocessor accepts data from input devices, processes it according to instructions in memory, and outputs results.
Micro controller and dsp processor, Microcontroller, What is Microcontroller , Features of a Microcontroller, Types of Microcontrollers, cisc, risc, Comparison between RISC and CISC, Harvard Memory Architecture Microcontroller, Von Neumann or Princeton Memory Architecture Microcontroller, External memory microcontroller, Embedded memory microcontroller, How does the microcontroller operate, Microcontroller architecture, Applications of Microcontroller, Microcontrollers used in , Various manufacturers of Microcontroller, Advantages and Disadvantages of Microcontroller, Comparing microcontroller and microprocessor, DSP Processor, Digital signal Processor, What is DPS Processor, Components of DSP, Architecture of DSP Processor, How DSP processor works, Advantages and disadvantages of DSP, Application of DSP, APPLICATIONS of DSP, MGCGV, Shubham Mishra
The document provides an introduction to microprocessors, including definitions, basic concepts, and the typical organization of a microprocessor-based system. It describes a microprocessor as a programmable device that takes in binary numbers as data, performs arithmetic and logical operations on them according to the instructions in a stored program, and produces results. Key aspects covered include the central processing unit, memory systems, instruction execution cycles, machine language, and the role of the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and register array within a microprocessor. Bus structures for address, data, and control are also defined.
The document provides an introduction to microprocessors including definitions, basic concepts, internal organization, and bus structure. It defines a microprocessor as a programmable device that takes in binary numbers as data, performs arithmetic and logical operations on them according to the stored program, and produces results. Internally, a microprocessor consists of an ALU, control unit, and register array. It also describes the address, data, and control buses that connect the microprocessor to memory and I/O devices. The document outlines the fetch-decode-execute instruction cycle and introduces machine language and memory in microprocessor systems.
The document provides an overview of microprocessors and microcontrollers. It discusses the history of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors to modern 64-bit processors. A microprocessor contains a central processing unit while a microcontroller contains additional components like memory and input/output interfaces integrated into a single chip. Microcontrollers require less external hardware than microprocessors. The document describes the basic architecture of microprocessors and microcontrollers including components like registers, buses, and memory. It compares the von Neumann and Harvard architectures. Interrupts and memory-mapped I/O are also discussed.
Lecture notes on microprocessor and microcomputerEkeedaPvtLtd
Here you can get notes on Microprocessor and Microcomputer for IT Engineering. Here we have covered Important topics on Microprocessor and Microcomputer for Information Technology Engineering subject.
The document discusses data acquisition systems. It provides an overview of data acquisition hardware and software. The key points are:
1. Data acquisition systems are used to measure or control physical characteristics in the real world by acquiring data through sensors, conditioning signals, converting to digital, and storing.
2. Data acquisition hardware interfaces sensors to a computer and can include modules, cards, and standards like CAMAC, Ethernet, and USB.
3. Data acquisition software is needed for the hardware to work with a PC and includes programming languages like C++, BASIC, and LabView.
4. Benefits of data acquisition systems include reduced data redundancy, improved integrity, and lower costs.
The document discusses the central processing unit (CPU) or microprocessor, which is the component of a computer that executes programs and processes data. It contains several processing cores that allow it to perform multiple tasks simultaneously. Modern microprocessors can contain billions of transistors and operate at gigahertz speeds, allowing them to perform vast numbers of calculations in seconds. They execute instructions in a sequential fashion using a system of registers, memory, and an arithmetic logic unit.
The microprocessor is a central processing unit contained on a single chip. It acts as the brain of the computer and controls all other components. As technology has advanced, microprocessors have become faster, smaller, and more powerful over time. A computer uses a microprocessor as its CPU and is called a microcomputer. The microprocessor accepts data from input devices, processes it according to instructions in memory, and outputs results.
Micro controller and dsp processor, Microcontroller, What is Microcontroller , Features of a Microcontroller, Types of Microcontrollers, cisc, risc, Comparison between RISC and CISC, Harvard Memory Architecture Microcontroller, Von Neumann or Princeton Memory Architecture Microcontroller, External memory microcontroller, Embedded memory microcontroller, How does the microcontroller operate, Microcontroller architecture, Applications of Microcontroller, Microcontrollers used in , Various manufacturers of Microcontroller, Advantages and Disadvantages of Microcontroller, Comparing microcontroller and microprocessor, DSP Processor, Digital signal Processor, What is DPS Processor, Components of DSP, Architecture of DSP Processor, How DSP processor works, Advantages and disadvantages of DSP, Application of DSP, APPLICATIONS of DSP, MGCGV, Shubham Mishra
The document provides an introduction to microprocessors, including definitions, basic concepts, and the typical organization of a microprocessor-based system. It describes a microprocessor as a programmable device that takes in binary numbers as data, performs arithmetic and logical operations on them according to the instructions in a stored program, and produces results. Key aspects covered include the central processing unit, memory systems, instruction execution cycles, machine language, and the role of the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and register array within a microprocessor. Bus structures for address, data, and control are also defined.
The document provides an introduction to microprocessors including definitions, basic concepts, internal organization, and bus structure. It defines a microprocessor as a programmable device that takes in binary numbers as data, performs arithmetic and logical operations on them according to the stored program, and produces results. Internally, a microprocessor consists of an ALU, control unit, and register array. It also describes the address, data, and control buses that connect the microprocessor to memory and I/O devices. The document outlines the fetch-decode-execute instruction cycle and introduces machine language and memory in microprocessor systems.
The document provides an overview of microprocessors and microcontrollers. It discusses the history of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors to modern 64-bit processors. A microprocessor contains a central processing unit while a microcontroller contains additional components like memory and input/output interfaces integrated into a single chip. Microcontrollers require less external hardware than microprocessors. The document describes the basic architecture of microprocessors and microcontrollers including components like registers, buses, and memory. It compares the von Neumann and Harvard architectures. Interrupts and memory-mapped I/O are also discussed.
Lecture notes on microprocessor and microcomputerEkeedaPvtLtd
Here you can get notes on Microprocessor and Microcomputer for IT Engineering. Here we have covered Important topics on Microprocessor and Microcomputer for Information Technology Engineering subject.
The microprocessor is the central processing unit of computers and electronic devices. Early microprocessors included 4-bit and 8-bit processors developed by Intel in the 1970s. Major developments included 16-bit processors like the Intel 8086 and 32-bit processors like the Intel 80386. Modern 64-bit processors include Intel Core i7 and i5. Microprocessors use a central processing unit, memory, and input/output systems to process instructions and data. Microcontrollers integrate a microprocessor with additional components like memory and input/output ports onto a single chip, making them useful for embedded applications.
This document provides an introduction to microprocessors and the 8085 microprocessor architecture. It defines a microprocessor as a programmable device that processes binary numbers according to a stored program. The document describes the components of a microprocessor system including the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, and memory subsystem. It explains the fetch-decode-execute instruction cycle and discusses machine language and assembly language. The document focuses on the 8085 microprocessor, describing its register structure, flag register, pin functions, and instruction set.
The document summarizes a technical seminar on processors presented by Bharat Kumar Rajak. It discusses the evolution of processors from early transistor-based designs to modern multi-core CPUs. It covers key topics like processor architecture, types of processors including RISC and CISC, applications, and future directions. Examples are provided to illustrate concepts like single-core, dual-core, and multi-core processor designs as well as cache memory and clock speed. The seminar aims to provide an overview of processors, their history, workings and importance in computers and other electronics.
The document discusses microcontrollers and microprocessors. It defines a microcontroller as a programmable digital processor with integrated peripherals that can operate as a standalone system. A microcontroller is compared to a Swiss army knife for its multifunctional nature. The key differences between microcontrollers and microprocessors are that microcontrollers have on-chip memory and integrated peripherals, require less external components, and are used for dedicated applications, while microprocessors require external memory and are more general purpose. Modern microcontroller features and the internal architecture of the Intel 8051 microcontroller are also described.
A microprocessor is an integrated circuit designed to function as the CPU of a microcomputer. It reads instructions from memory, decodes and executes them, and processes data as required. The microprocessor incorporates various functional units like an ALU, registers, instruction decoder, and control unit. It communicates with external memory and I/O devices via address, data, and control buses. Memory is used to store both instructions and data, and comes in RAM and ROM varieties. Interfaces are needed to connect peripherals to the microprocessor and handle functions like buffering, addressing decoding, and timing/control of data transfers. Software for microprocessors includes machine language programs and programs written in assembly/high-level languages which are
Microprocessors and microcontrollers are both integrated circuits that contain a processor, memory, and input/output peripherals on a single chip. Microprocessors are general purpose CPUs used to build computer systems, while microcontrollers are self-contained systems that control embedded devices. Microcontrollers contain additional components like timers and analog-to-digital converters that make them suitable for real-time control applications in devices and appliances. Common applications of microcontrollers include industrial control systems, home appliances, automotive engine control systems, and consumer electronics. Microprocessors are used to build more complex computer systems for applications like desktop PCs, servers, communication equipment, and industrial instrumentation.
The microprocessor is a central processing unit contained on a single chip. It acts as the central component of a microcomputer. As technology has advanced, microprocessors have become faster, smaller, and able to perform more work per clock cycle. A microprocessor is fabricated on a very small chip and is capable of performing arithmetic and logic operations and communicating with external devices.
Microprocessors are electronic circuits that function as the central processing unit (CPU) of computers and other electronic devices. They incorporate arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry to perform computational tasks. Early microprocessors from the 1970s contained only a few thousand transistors, while modern microprocessors can contain over a billion transistors. Microprocessors are manufactured using complex semiconductor fabrication techniques involving deposition and etching of thin layers to build up the transistor circuits. They are key components that power all modern computers and many other electronic devices.
Difference Between Microprocessors and Microcontrollerselprocus
A microprocessor is an electronic computer component crafted from miniature sized transistors & some other circuitry elements on a solitary semi-conductor IC (integrated circuit) or micro chip. Microcontroller is a computer on‐a‐chip optimized to manage electric gadgets. It is intended particularly for precise tasks like controlling a particular system.
Introduction to embedded systems using the msp430 6. 1 Enumerate the.pdfaienterpresses
Introduction to embedded systems using the msp430 6. 1 Enumerate the elements of a basic
microcontroller interface and indicate two major criteria for the selection of each. 6.4 Assume
the system described in Problem 6.1 is lo be fed from a 4.0V. 2A00 mAh lithium battery.
Estimate the expected battery life, assuming LEDs are driven dynamically at 30% duty cycle.
What would be the regulator efficiency?? Determine the MCU thermal dissipation for the given
loading conditions and verify if it is operating within a safe temperature range.
Solution
An interface is either Input device, or output device, or a storage device, or processing device.
Input devices are used to provide some data to the microcontroller.
e.g. Switch, 4x4 Keypad Matrix, Infrared sensor, Temperature sensor, Light Sensor etc. These
devices provide some input to the microcontroller, and this input is called as data.
Output devices are used to present the processed data to user or other equipment.
e.g. LED, LCD, Buzzer, Relay driver, DC Motor Driver, Stepper Motor driver, 7-Segment
Display etc. These devices convert the processed data to such a format, which is understandable
by human or other equipment.
Storage Devices are used to store the data, normally it is expected to store the data even if the
power is switched off. Some of the storage devices are SD/MMC card, EEPROM, DataFlash,
Real Time Clock, etc. These interfaces are used retain the data and this data can be used as and
when required by the microcontroller for further processing
Processing Devices are those interfaces most important as they reduce product development time
and provides out of box solution. E.g. Ethernet Controller interface, USB to TTL interface, SPI
to SD/MMC interface, Digital to analog module, etc. These interface circuits are flexible to
connect with any microcontroller which can talk in their language (sequence of commands).
A simple LED normally requires 0 or 5V to on / off. This is called as digital signal.
A buzzer beep similar to LED but can be beeped even with intermediate voltage levels between 0
to 5V. This variable voltage input is called as analog signal.
A temperature sensor LM35 generates analog voltage in proportion to the temperature. This
analog voltage needs to be connected to Analog Port pin of a microcontroller for processing
temperature data.
Ethernet controller module requires SPI data format to interface with any microcontroller. SPI is
a complex digital communication format.
Thus every interface is unique in its interfacing standards, but they are same at par with all
microcontrollers..
Introduction to embedded systems using the msp430 6.1 Enumerate the .pdfaienterpresses
Introduction to embedded systems using the msp430 6.1 Enumerate the elements of a basic
microcontroller interface and indicate two major criteria for the selection of each.
Solution
Microcontroller is a single chip micro computer made through VLSI fabrication. A
microcontroller also called an embedded controller because the microcontroller and its support
circuits are often built into, or embedded in, the devices they control. A microcontroller is
available in different word lengths like microprocessors (4bit,8bit,16bit,32bit,64bit and 128 bit
microcontrollers are available today).
Microcontroller Chip
You can find microcontrollers in all kinds of electronic devices these days. Any device that
measures, stores, controls, calculates, or displays information must have a microcontroller chip
inside. The largest single use for microcontrollers is in automobile industry (microcontrollers
widely used for controlling engines and power controls in automobiles). You can also find
microcontrollers inside keyboards, mouse, modems, printers, and other peripherals. In test
equipments, microcontrollers make it easy to add features such as the ability to store
measurements, to create and store user routines, and to display messages and waveforms.
Consumer products that use microcontrollers include digital camcorders, optical players,
LCD/LED display units, etc. And these are just a few examples.
1) A microcontroller basically contains one or more following components:
2) A microcontroller internally consists of all features required for a computing system and
functions as a computer without adding any external digital parts in it.
3) Most of the pins in the microcontroller chip can be made programmable by the user.
4) A microcontroller has many bit handling instructions that can be easily understood by the
programmer.
5) A microcontroller is capable of handling Boolean functions.
6) Higher speed and performance.
7) On-chip ROM structure in a microcontroller provides better firmware security.
8 ) Easy to design with low cost and small size.
Microcontroller structure
The basic structure and block diagram of a microcontroller is shown in the fig (1.1).
Microcontroller Structure
Image Taken From
CPU is the brain of a microcontroller .CPU is responsible for fetching the instruction, decodes it,
then finally executed. CPU connects every part of a microcontroller into a single system. The
primary function of CPU is fetching and decoding instructions. Instruction fetched from program
memory must be decoded by the CPU.
The function of memory in a microcontroller is same as microprocessor. It is used to store data
and program. A microcontroller usually has a certain amount of RAM and ROM (EEPROM,
EPROM, etc) or flash memories for storing program source codes.
Parallel input/output ports are mainly used to drive/interface various devices such as LCD’S,
LED’S, printers, memories, etc to a microcontroller.
Serial ports provide various serial interfaces between microcont.
1. The document discusses Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs), specifically focusing on microprocessors, microcomputers, and Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs).
2. It describes the basic components and functions of a microprocessor, including the processor, memory, and input/output devices. Common microprocessor types and their history are also outlined.
3. Microcomputers are defined as microprocessor-based systems that can perform computer functions. Microcontrollers are also discussed as dedicated microprocessor systems used for control applications.
The document discusses the key components and functions of a microprocessor. It describes the arithmetic logic unit, cache memory, transistors, control signals, and instruction set that allow a microprocessor to process instructions and data. The microprocessor obtains instructions from memory and processes them with its control unit, registers, and arithmetic logic unit. Microprocessors offer advantages like high processing speed, flexibility, and compact size, but have limitations in data size, analog processing, and floating point support. Overall, microprocessors are essential components that power modern computer systems.
The document discusses the key components and functions of a microprocessor. It describes the arithmetic logic unit, cache memory, transistors, control signals, and instruction set that allow a microprocessor to process instructions and data. The microprocessor obtains instructions from memory and processes them with its control unit, registers, and arithmetic logic unit. Microprocessors offer advantages like high processing speed, flexibility, and compact size, but have limitations in data size, analog processing, and floating point support. Overall, microprocessors are essential components that power modern computer systems.
Microcontrollers are single integrated circuits that contain a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. They are designed to control systems automatically based on programmed applications. The first microcontroller was the TMS 1000 in 1974. Microcontrollers contain basic hardware components like buses to transfer data, volatile and non-volatile memory, input/output ports, an oscillator for timing signals, and timers/counters. They work by executing programmed instructions in sequence from memory at a rapid pace controlled by the oscillator. Microcontrollers are widely used to control devices in applications like mobile phones, automobiles, appliances, security systems, and more.
1) A microprocessor is a central processing unit built on a single integrated circuit. It performs basic operations like addition and logical operations and can move data from one location to another.
2) A basic microcomputer system consists of an input/output unit, memory unit, and a microprocessor. The microprocessor fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and executes them to provide output.
3) Microprocessors have evolved from 4-bit to 8-bit to 16-bit to 32-bit and now 64-bit. Early microprocessors like the Intel 4004 had only a few thousand transistors whereas modern 64-bit microprocessors can have over a billion transistors and execute billions of instructions per second.
The microprocessor is the central processing unit of a microcomputer, fabricated on a very small chip. It acts as the brain of the computer system and has become faster, smaller, and more capable over time. A microprocessor is defined as a CPU contained in a single integrated circuit. Key characteristics of microprocessors include their instruction set, clock speed, word length, and data bus width. Microprocessors provide computers with important advantages of low cost, small size, low power consumption, and versatility.
The microprocessor is the central processing unit of a microcomputer, fabricated on a very small chip. It acts as the brain of the computer system and has become faster, smaller, and more capable over time. A microprocessor is defined as a CPU contained in a single integrated circuit. Key characteristics of microprocessors include their instruction set, clock speed, word length, and data bus width. Microprocessors provide computers with important advantages of low cost, small size, low power consumption, and versatility.
The presentation introduces the topic of microprocessor architecture. It defines a microprocessor as the central processing unit of a computer system that performs arithmetic and logic operations. It then explains that a microprocessor works by accepting binary data as input, processing it using an arithmetic logic unit and control unit, and providing output based on stored instructions. Finally, it provides a block diagram showing the typical components of a microprocessor system, including the microprocessor, memory, input/output devices, and interfaces.
The document provides an overview of microprocessors and microcontrollers. It discusses the components of a microprocessor including the arithmetic logic unit, register array, and control unit. It also describes the system bus consisting of the address bus, data bus, and control bus. The document covers various microprocessor classifications based on bit size, applications, and architecture. It defines key microprocessor terms and programming languages including machine language, assembly language, and high-level languages. Finally, it discusses the architecture of the 8085 microprocessor, describing its internal registers, ALU, control unit, interrupts, and pin configuration.
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The microprocessor is the central processing unit of computers and electronic devices. Early microprocessors included 4-bit and 8-bit processors developed by Intel in the 1970s. Major developments included 16-bit processors like the Intel 8086 and 32-bit processors like the Intel 80386. Modern 64-bit processors include Intel Core i7 and i5. Microprocessors use a central processing unit, memory, and input/output systems to process instructions and data. Microcontrollers integrate a microprocessor with additional components like memory and input/output ports onto a single chip, making them useful for embedded applications.
This document provides an introduction to microprocessors and the 8085 microprocessor architecture. It defines a microprocessor as a programmable device that processes binary numbers according to a stored program. The document describes the components of a microprocessor system including the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, and memory subsystem. It explains the fetch-decode-execute instruction cycle and discusses machine language and assembly language. The document focuses on the 8085 microprocessor, describing its register structure, flag register, pin functions, and instruction set.
The document summarizes a technical seminar on processors presented by Bharat Kumar Rajak. It discusses the evolution of processors from early transistor-based designs to modern multi-core CPUs. It covers key topics like processor architecture, types of processors including RISC and CISC, applications, and future directions. Examples are provided to illustrate concepts like single-core, dual-core, and multi-core processor designs as well as cache memory and clock speed. The seminar aims to provide an overview of processors, their history, workings and importance in computers and other electronics.
The document discusses microcontrollers and microprocessors. It defines a microcontroller as a programmable digital processor with integrated peripherals that can operate as a standalone system. A microcontroller is compared to a Swiss army knife for its multifunctional nature. The key differences between microcontrollers and microprocessors are that microcontrollers have on-chip memory and integrated peripherals, require less external components, and are used for dedicated applications, while microprocessors require external memory and are more general purpose. Modern microcontroller features and the internal architecture of the Intel 8051 microcontroller are also described.
A microprocessor is an integrated circuit designed to function as the CPU of a microcomputer. It reads instructions from memory, decodes and executes them, and processes data as required. The microprocessor incorporates various functional units like an ALU, registers, instruction decoder, and control unit. It communicates with external memory and I/O devices via address, data, and control buses. Memory is used to store both instructions and data, and comes in RAM and ROM varieties. Interfaces are needed to connect peripherals to the microprocessor and handle functions like buffering, addressing decoding, and timing/control of data transfers. Software for microprocessors includes machine language programs and programs written in assembly/high-level languages which are
Microprocessors and microcontrollers are both integrated circuits that contain a processor, memory, and input/output peripherals on a single chip. Microprocessors are general purpose CPUs used to build computer systems, while microcontrollers are self-contained systems that control embedded devices. Microcontrollers contain additional components like timers and analog-to-digital converters that make them suitable for real-time control applications in devices and appliances. Common applications of microcontrollers include industrial control systems, home appliances, automotive engine control systems, and consumer electronics. Microprocessors are used to build more complex computer systems for applications like desktop PCs, servers, communication equipment, and industrial instrumentation.
The microprocessor is a central processing unit contained on a single chip. It acts as the central component of a microcomputer. As technology has advanced, microprocessors have become faster, smaller, and able to perform more work per clock cycle. A microprocessor is fabricated on a very small chip and is capable of performing arithmetic and logic operations and communicating with external devices.
Microprocessors are electronic circuits that function as the central processing unit (CPU) of computers and other electronic devices. They incorporate arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry to perform computational tasks. Early microprocessors from the 1970s contained only a few thousand transistors, while modern microprocessors can contain over a billion transistors. Microprocessors are manufactured using complex semiconductor fabrication techniques involving deposition and etching of thin layers to build up the transistor circuits. They are key components that power all modern computers and many other electronic devices.
Difference Between Microprocessors and Microcontrollerselprocus
A microprocessor is an electronic computer component crafted from miniature sized transistors & some other circuitry elements on a solitary semi-conductor IC (integrated circuit) or micro chip. Microcontroller is a computer on‐a‐chip optimized to manage electric gadgets. It is intended particularly for precise tasks like controlling a particular system.
Introduction to embedded systems using the msp430 6. 1 Enumerate the.pdfaienterpresses
Introduction to embedded systems using the msp430 6. 1 Enumerate the elements of a basic
microcontroller interface and indicate two major criteria for the selection of each. 6.4 Assume
the system described in Problem 6.1 is lo be fed from a 4.0V. 2A00 mAh lithium battery.
Estimate the expected battery life, assuming LEDs are driven dynamically at 30% duty cycle.
What would be the regulator efficiency?? Determine the MCU thermal dissipation for the given
loading conditions and verify if it is operating within a safe temperature range.
Solution
An interface is either Input device, or output device, or a storage device, or processing device.
Input devices are used to provide some data to the microcontroller.
e.g. Switch, 4x4 Keypad Matrix, Infrared sensor, Temperature sensor, Light Sensor etc. These
devices provide some input to the microcontroller, and this input is called as data.
Output devices are used to present the processed data to user or other equipment.
e.g. LED, LCD, Buzzer, Relay driver, DC Motor Driver, Stepper Motor driver, 7-Segment
Display etc. These devices convert the processed data to such a format, which is understandable
by human or other equipment.
Storage Devices are used to store the data, normally it is expected to store the data even if the
power is switched off. Some of the storage devices are SD/MMC card, EEPROM, DataFlash,
Real Time Clock, etc. These interfaces are used retain the data and this data can be used as and
when required by the microcontroller for further processing
Processing Devices are those interfaces most important as they reduce product development time
and provides out of box solution. E.g. Ethernet Controller interface, USB to TTL interface, SPI
to SD/MMC interface, Digital to analog module, etc. These interface circuits are flexible to
connect with any microcontroller which can talk in their language (sequence of commands).
A simple LED normally requires 0 or 5V to on / off. This is called as digital signal.
A buzzer beep similar to LED but can be beeped even with intermediate voltage levels between 0
to 5V. This variable voltage input is called as analog signal.
A temperature sensor LM35 generates analog voltage in proportion to the temperature. This
analog voltage needs to be connected to Analog Port pin of a microcontroller for processing
temperature data.
Ethernet controller module requires SPI data format to interface with any microcontroller. SPI is
a complex digital communication format.
Thus every interface is unique in its interfacing standards, but they are same at par with all
microcontrollers..
Introduction to embedded systems using the msp430 6.1 Enumerate the .pdfaienterpresses
Introduction to embedded systems using the msp430 6.1 Enumerate the elements of a basic
microcontroller interface and indicate two major criteria for the selection of each.
Solution
Microcontroller is a single chip micro computer made through VLSI fabrication. A
microcontroller also called an embedded controller because the microcontroller and its support
circuits are often built into, or embedded in, the devices they control. A microcontroller is
available in different word lengths like microprocessors (4bit,8bit,16bit,32bit,64bit and 128 bit
microcontrollers are available today).
Microcontroller Chip
You can find microcontrollers in all kinds of electronic devices these days. Any device that
measures, stores, controls, calculates, or displays information must have a microcontroller chip
inside. The largest single use for microcontrollers is in automobile industry (microcontrollers
widely used for controlling engines and power controls in automobiles). You can also find
microcontrollers inside keyboards, mouse, modems, printers, and other peripherals. In test
equipments, microcontrollers make it easy to add features such as the ability to store
measurements, to create and store user routines, and to display messages and waveforms.
Consumer products that use microcontrollers include digital camcorders, optical players,
LCD/LED display units, etc. And these are just a few examples.
1) A microcontroller basically contains one or more following components:
2) A microcontroller internally consists of all features required for a computing system and
functions as a computer without adding any external digital parts in it.
3) Most of the pins in the microcontroller chip can be made programmable by the user.
4) A microcontroller has many bit handling instructions that can be easily understood by the
programmer.
5) A microcontroller is capable of handling Boolean functions.
6) Higher speed and performance.
7) On-chip ROM structure in a microcontroller provides better firmware security.
8 ) Easy to design with low cost and small size.
Microcontroller structure
The basic structure and block diagram of a microcontroller is shown in the fig (1.1).
Microcontroller Structure
Image Taken From
CPU is the brain of a microcontroller .CPU is responsible for fetching the instruction, decodes it,
then finally executed. CPU connects every part of a microcontroller into a single system. The
primary function of CPU is fetching and decoding instructions. Instruction fetched from program
memory must be decoded by the CPU.
The function of memory in a microcontroller is same as microprocessor. It is used to store data
and program. A microcontroller usually has a certain amount of RAM and ROM (EEPROM,
EPROM, etc) or flash memories for storing program source codes.
Parallel input/output ports are mainly used to drive/interface various devices such as LCD’S,
LED’S, printers, memories, etc to a microcontroller.
Serial ports provide various serial interfaces between microcont.
1. The document discusses Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs), specifically focusing on microprocessors, microcomputers, and Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs).
2. It describes the basic components and functions of a microprocessor, including the processor, memory, and input/output devices. Common microprocessor types and their history are also outlined.
3. Microcomputers are defined as microprocessor-based systems that can perform computer functions. Microcontrollers are also discussed as dedicated microprocessor systems used for control applications.
The document discusses the key components and functions of a microprocessor. It describes the arithmetic logic unit, cache memory, transistors, control signals, and instruction set that allow a microprocessor to process instructions and data. The microprocessor obtains instructions from memory and processes them with its control unit, registers, and arithmetic logic unit. Microprocessors offer advantages like high processing speed, flexibility, and compact size, but have limitations in data size, analog processing, and floating point support. Overall, microprocessors are essential components that power modern computer systems.
The document discusses the key components and functions of a microprocessor. It describes the arithmetic logic unit, cache memory, transistors, control signals, and instruction set that allow a microprocessor to process instructions and data. The microprocessor obtains instructions from memory and processes them with its control unit, registers, and arithmetic logic unit. Microprocessors offer advantages like high processing speed, flexibility, and compact size, but have limitations in data size, analog processing, and floating point support. Overall, microprocessors are essential components that power modern computer systems.
Microcontrollers are single integrated circuits that contain a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. They are designed to control systems automatically based on programmed applications. The first microcontroller was the TMS 1000 in 1974. Microcontrollers contain basic hardware components like buses to transfer data, volatile and non-volatile memory, input/output ports, an oscillator for timing signals, and timers/counters. They work by executing programmed instructions in sequence from memory at a rapid pace controlled by the oscillator. Microcontrollers are widely used to control devices in applications like mobile phones, automobiles, appliances, security systems, and more.
1) A microprocessor is a central processing unit built on a single integrated circuit. It performs basic operations like addition and logical operations and can move data from one location to another.
2) A basic microcomputer system consists of an input/output unit, memory unit, and a microprocessor. The microprocessor fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and executes them to provide output.
3) Microprocessors have evolved from 4-bit to 8-bit to 16-bit to 32-bit and now 64-bit. Early microprocessors like the Intel 4004 had only a few thousand transistors whereas modern 64-bit microprocessors can have over a billion transistors and execute billions of instructions per second.
The microprocessor is the central processing unit of a microcomputer, fabricated on a very small chip. It acts as the brain of the computer system and has become faster, smaller, and more capable over time. A microprocessor is defined as a CPU contained in a single integrated circuit. Key characteristics of microprocessors include their instruction set, clock speed, word length, and data bus width. Microprocessors provide computers with important advantages of low cost, small size, low power consumption, and versatility.
The microprocessor is the central processing unit of a microcomputer, fabricated on a very small chip. It acts as the brain of the computer system and has become faster, smaller, and more capable over time. A microprocessor is defined as a CPU contained in a single integrated circuit. Key characteristics of microprocessors include their instruction set, clock speed, word length, and data bus width. Microprocessors provide computers with important advantages of low cost, small size, low power consumption, and versatility.
The presentation introduces the topic of microprocessor architecture. It defines a microprocessor as the central processing unit of a computer system that performs arithmetic and logic operations. It then explains that a microprocessor works by accepting binary data as input, processing it using an arithmetic logic unit and control unit, and providing output based on stored instructions. Finally, it provides a block diagram showing the typical components of a microprocessor system, including the microprocessor, memory, input/output devices, and interfaces.
The document provides an overview of microprocessors and microcontrollers. It discusses the components of a microprocessor including the arithmetic logic unit, register array, and control unit. It also describes the system bus consisting of the address bus, data bus, and control bus. The document covers various microprocessor classifications based on bit size, applications, and architecture. It defines key microprocessor terms and programming languages including machine language, assembly language, and high-level languages. Finally, it discusses the architecture of the 8085 microprocessor, describing its internal registers, ALU, control unit, interrupts, and pin configuration.
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AN OVERVIEW OF MICROPROCESSORS AND ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING
1. Advances in Interconnect Technologies: An International Journal (AITIJ) Vol .1. No .1, 2017
1
AN OVERVIEW OF MICROPROCESSORS AND
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING
1
Md. Abdullah Al Zaman, 2
Nusrath Jahan Monira
1,2
Department of Physics, University of Chittagong, Chittagong-4331, Bangladesh
ABSTRACT
Microprocessor is a very useful tool for our modern communication. In fact the performance of any
computer is vastly dependent on them. In this paper we have focused on the evolution of the
microprocessors first, and then went for the categorization, organization, operation and some other
fundamental things. Discussed about the several cycles that a microprocessor goes through and at last
gave some ideas and aspects of assembly language programming.
1. INTRODUCTION
The term ‘micro’ means extremely small and ‘processor’ means the thing that accelerates tasks.
So in general sense the term ‘microprocessor’ means an extremely small thing that can accelerate
different tasks as ordered. But the actual definition of microprocessor is slightly different than
this.
A microprocessor is a tiny electronic chip containing transistors found inside a computer’s central
processing unit and other electronic devices. Its basic function is to take input, process it and then
provide appropriate output.
Fig-a: Intel-4004 (year-1971)
The most important technological invention of recent times is the microprocessor. The
developments in the technology of the integrated circuits made it possible for the engineers of the
“Intel” corporation of America to develop a micro-programmable computer on a chip in 1971.
This device (“Intel 4004”) consist of about 2300 transistors on a chip which was fabricated using
silicon-gate P-channel MOS technology. It was later named as microprocessor. In figure-a, we
have shown a sample of a microprocessor (“Intel 4004). It was a 4-bit microprocessor.
2. Advances in Interconnect Technologies: An International Journal (AITIJ) Vol .1. No .1, 2017
2
Microprocessors are usually made of silicon and often called ‘Logic chips’ or only ‘Processors’.
The first generation microprocessor family was of 8-bit. But today we use both 32-bit and 64-bit
microprocessors. In the last 44 years the number of transistors used in microprocessor has hugely
increased. Now we have microprocessors containing more than six millions of transistors. The
evolution of microprocessors with time is shown in figure-b.
On the surface, a microprocessor’s job may seem like an easy task, but modern microprocessors
perform trillions of instructions per second. No technology is more incredible than the
microprocessor. Every second, trillions of switch openings and closings occurs all within a
thousandth of an inch below the surface.
Fig-b: Evolution of microprocessors
From the time a computer is turned onto the time it is shut down, a microprocessor will have
performed millions of logic and arithmetic operations. These operations utilize tiny number of
holding spaces called register. Typical arithmetic operations include adding, subtracting and
comparing two or more values. To perform the operations a microprocessor has to receive
specific instructions as part of design. When a computer is started, the microprocessor receives its
first set of instructions from the basic input-output system. A microprocessor’s speed is measured
in Mega-Hertz (M-Hz).
2. CLASSIFICATION
The very first microprocessor was of 4-bit. Then we got 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit,64-bit
microprocessors gradually with time and with the development of modern technology. We can
classify it in many ways but the most commonly and popularly, microprocessors are classified
into two categories, and they are:-
According to working capability:
3. Advances in Interconnect Technologies: An International Journal (AITIJ) Vol .1. No .1, 2017
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• Dedicated microprocessors or Microcontroller
• General purpose microprocessors
• Bit-slice processors
According to characteristics:
• RISC processors
• CISC processors
• Special processors
2.1. According to working capability
2.1.1. Dedicated microprocessors or Microcontroller
A dedicated microprocessor or microcontroller is a computer present in a single integrated circuit
which is dedicated to perform one task or one type of tasks. They are used in situations where
limited computing functions are required. It has a dedicated input device and often has a display
for output. It contains memory, programmable input/output peripherals as well as a processor.
Microcontrollers are mostly designed for embedded applications and are heavily used in
automatically controlled electronic devices such as cell-phones, cameras, microwave ovens,
washing machines etc. They are usually 4-bit and designed for low power consumption. This type
of microprocessors is also known as Application specific integrated circuits (ASICs).
2.1.2. General purpose microprocessors (GPM)
This type of microprocessors is designed for various uses. They have a wide range of
applications, not restricted to one function. They can be applied to all or most number of
members of a category or group of application. The microprocessors of computers and Android
cell-phones are the most common and popular example of it. They can run most of the
applications under certain conditions and with the help of additional programming or
applications.
2.1.2. Bit-slice processors
Some processors have limited working capacity. They are not useful in performing many difficult
tasks, but they can be useful in making big processors by adding them one by one. That work is
very expensive and time consuming. We hardly use this type of microprocessor.
We will discuss about the other type of microprocessor in the later-part of the article. Before
going to that we need to understand the organization or internal architecture of the
microprocessor. Here we will learn some important terms that will help to understand the other
type of microprocessor more easily.
3. ORGANIZATION OF A MICROPROCESSOR
To explain the architecture or the organization of a microprocessor,we can take help from the
intel-8085 microprocessor shown in figure c.
4. Advances in Interconnect Tec
It was an 8-bit microprocessor bu
help of a functional diagram in fig
(Fig –d: Block diagra
So we have mainly the parts:-
• Arithmetic/logic unit
• Control unit
• Registers
• Bus unit
3.1 Arithmetic/ logic unit (AL
The ALU performs the actual c
calculator.
The functions of ALU are:-
echnologies: An International Journal (AITIJ) Vol .1. No .1
Fig-c: Intel-8085 microprocessor
built in 1976. The internal architecture is shown abo
fig-d.
gram of Intel 8085 microprocessor.Courtesy: Wikipedia)
LU)
l computations or processing of data. ALU is the
.1, 2017
4
bove with the
he computer’s
5. Advances in Interconnect Technologies: An International Journal (AITIJ) Vol .1. No .1, 2017
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• Arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division)
• Logical operations (OR, AND, NOT etc)
• Decision making (ability of comparing two or more numbers or data).
3.2 Control unit
The control unit controls the movement of data and instructions into and out of the CPU. It also
controls operation of the ALU. The control unit does not input, output, process, or store data;
rather, it initiates and controls these operations The control unit also communicates with input
devices to begin the transfer of data or instructions into memory and with output devices to begin
the transfer of results from memory.
3.3 Registers
The registers are special memory locations for storing temporary information much as a scratch
pad does. Every register is made of more than one flip-flop. The ALU uses the data stored in the
registers. Different types of registers are used. Among them ‘accumulator register’ and ‘memory
address register’ or just ‘address register’ ‘instruction register’ and buffer register are mostly
important for understanding the instruction execution. Accumulator register stores the data until
an instruction is completed. The result of an arithmetic operation is also stored by it and it
happens every time when an arithmetic operation occurs. The memory address register contains
the address where the data is coming from and from which memory. The memory address register
have the binary address where a data is stored somewhere in the memory. Instruction register
gives the required instruction and the buffer register that stores the data being transferred to and
from the immediate access store.
3.4 Bus unit
Buses carry digital information throughout the chip and computer; and local memory supports on-
chip computation. There are so many bus connections like address bus, control bus, data bus
memory bus etc.
More complex microprocessors often contain other sections–such as sections of specialized
memory, called cache memory, to speed up access to external data-storage devices. We can also
explain the organization of a microprocessor with the diagram given above (fig-e)
Microprocessor can’t work automatically. It requires some data called instructions to perform a
definite task. So while talking about microprocessors, we need to know their instructions and how
they execute them.
4. INSTRUCTION EXECUTION
Instruction is the information or the way with which the required task can be performed. The
instructions for the microprocessor in the storage must be in machine readable form. These
instructions consist of two parts. The first one is ‘an operation code’ and ‘one or more operand.
This is usually known as instruction format. We will discuss about it later.
Instruction execution is one of the major functions of the microprocessor. Instructions are
executed one after one. Instruction execution is usually performed by two cycles and they are;
• Fetch cycle,
• Execute cycle.
6. Advances in Interconnect Technologies: An International Journal (AITIJ) Vol .1. No .1, 2017
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4.1 Fetch cycle
At the beginning of the instruction execution, the central processing unit (CPU) fetches some data
and instruction (program) from its main memory and stores them in its own internal temporary
memory areas called ‘registers’. The process of fetching data and instruction is possible through a
path called bus. After that the CPU judges or makes sense of the instruction it has just fetched.
This process is called ‘Decode’. CPU decodes all instructions and prepares the areas within the
microprocessor for the next step. The whole process or cycle is known as fetch cycle. [In many
sources we got the ‘decode’ process as an individual process.]
4.2 Execute cycle
This step doesn’t have many tasks to perform. In this step he decoded instruction is performed
and the result is made. Then the result is preserved for further uses in the register. So the cycle
which actually executes the given instructions is called execute cycle.
There is another kind cycle for explaining instruction execution, which is nothing but the
combination of the fetch cycle and execute cycle. It is called “Instruction cycle”. It is also known
as ‘fetch-execute cycle’
5. INSTRUCTION CYCLE
It is the cycle in which a single instruction is fetched, decoded and executed. The first half of the
cycle transfers the instructions from the memory to the instruction register (accumulator) and
decodes it. In the second half executes the instruction. The instruction cycle can be showed like
the diagram (fig-f) below.
Figure-f: Diagram for instruction cycle
Or the operations are obtained for instruction cycle:
• Read an Instruction
• Decode the instruction
• Find the address of operand
• Retrieve an operand
• Perform desired operation
• Find the address of destination
• Store the result into the destination.
6. CLOCK CYCLE
The speed of a computer microprocessor, or CPU, is determined by the clock cycle, which is the
amount of time between two pulses of an oscillator. Generally speaking, the higher number of
7. Advances in Interconnect Technologies: An International Journal (AITIJ) Vol .1. No .1, 2017
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pulses per second, the faster the computer processor will be able to process information. The
clock speed is measured in Hz, typically either megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). Computer
microprocessors can execute one or more instructions per clock cycle, depending on the type of
microprocessor. Early computer microprocessors and slower microprocessors can only execute
one instruction per clock cycle, but faster, more advanced microprocessors can execute multiple
instructions per clock cycle, processing data more efficiently.
7. INSTRUCTION OF THE MICROPROCESSOR
There is some definite things required for the execution of an instruction like the addressing
modes, instruction set, operation codes etc.
7.1 Addressing modes
The term addressing modes refers to the way in which the operand of an instruction is specified.
Information contained in the instruction code is the value of the operand or the address of the
result/operand.
7.2 Instruction format
The set of simple tasks that the processor can perform are called the instruction set. The
instruction set is usually composed of two parts: the first part is a mnemonic called the OPCODE,
which tells what the microprocessor is supposed to do. The second part, which may be composed
of one or two words, contains either data, or addresses where data manipulation is to take place.
The actual values of these words depend upon the OPCODE. Usually, the data which each
OPCODE operates on is called operand(s). The entire instruction set and its syntactic rules form a
grammar that the CPU can understand and act upon. It is called assembly language.
7.3 Mnemonic
The word MNEMONIC means "A device such as a pattern of letters, ideas, or associations that
assists in remembering something". So, it is usually used by assembly language programmers to
remember the "OPERATIONS" a machine can do, like "ADD" and "MUL" and "MOV" etc.
7.4 Op code (operation code)
The OPCODE is part of an instruction word that is interpreted by the processor as representing
the operation to perform, such as read, write, jump, add etc. Many instructions will also have
OPERANDS that affect how the instruction performs, such as saying from where in memory to
read or write, or where to jump.
Now we can talk about the remaining type of microprocessors that are based on their
characteristics.
8. MICRO PROCESSORS ACCORDING TO CHARACTERISTICS
• RISC processors
• CISC processors
• Special processors.
8. Advances in Interconnect Technologies: An International Journal (AITIJ) Vol .1. No .1, 2017
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8.1 RISC processors
RISC stands for ‘Reduced instruction set computer’. This microprocessor was designed to
perform a smaller number of types of computer instructions so that it can operate at a higher
speed. Characteristics of RISC processors are given below.
Relatively few instructions and addressing modes (what is meant by instructions and addressing
mode, is explained later in this article)
• Memory access limited to load and store instructions.
• All operations done within the registers of CPU
• Fixed length, easily decoded instruction format
• Single cycle instruction execution i.e. required only one cycle to execute a definite
instruction.
• The microprocessor is designed using hardwired control.
• It has several general purpose registers
Some popular RISC processors are:
• PA-RISC: HP700LC
• POWER PC- 601,604,615,620
8.2 CISC processors
CISC Stands for "Complex Instruction Set Computing." This is a type of microprocessor
design. The CISC architecture contains a large set of computer instructions that range from very
simple to very complex and specialized. The design was intended to compute complex
instructions in the most efficient way.
Some characteristics of CISC processors are given below
• Large number of addressing modes and instructions
• Some instructions perform special task
• Variable length instruction format
• Instructions that manipulate control
• Several cycles may be required to execute one instruction.
• The microprocessor is designed using code control.
• It has small number of general purpose registers
Intel’s processors of x86 Families are the best example of CISC processors.
We can see that the RISC and CISC processors can easily be differentiated by their own
characteristics. Besides pipelining and superscalar architectures are the base methods to design
RISC which is not true for CISC processors.
8.3 Special processors
There are several other processors, which are useful in special purposes. Some of these processors
are briefly discussed below.
9. Advances in Interconnect Technologies: An International Journal (AITIJ) Vol .1. No .1, 2017
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8.4 Coprocessor
Coprocessor is very similar to general purpose microprocessor. It is designed for a specific
function. But coprocessor can handle its particular function many times faster than the ordinary
general purpose microprocessor. The most well known coprocessor is math-coprocessor.
8.5 Input/output processor
This is one of the most important microprocessors. With this processor a large set of I/O device
can be controlled, with minimum CPU involvement. The I/O processors take care of most of the
tasks involved in controlling the terminals. The common examples of I/O processors are
keyboard/mouse controller, graphic display controller etc.
8.6 Transputer (Transistor computer)
It is a high performance microprocessor designed to facilitate inter process and inter processor
communications and targeted at the efficient exploitation of very large scale integration. The most
important feature of transputer is it external links, which enables it to be used as a building block
in the construction of low cost, high performance multiprocessing system.
8.7 DSP (Digital signal processor)
This processor is specially designed to handle real world analog signals that have been converted
into digital representation. Modem function, speech recognition, 2D and 3D graphics
acceleration, audio and video compression etc are the applications of DSP.
9. ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING
Assembly language programming is writing machine instructions in mnemonic form, using an
assembler to convert these mnemonics into actual processor instructions and associated data. An
assembly language is a low-level programming language for microprocessors and other
programmable devices.
9.1 Features of assembly language programming
Assembly language is the most basic programming language available for any processor.
Assembly languages generally lack high-level conveniences such as variables and functions. It
has the same structures and set of commands as machine language, but it allows a programmer to
use names instead of numbers. This language is still useful for programmers when speed is
necessary or when they need to carry out an operation that is not possible in high-level languages.
Some important features of assembly language programming are given below:
• Allows the programmer to use mnemonics when writing source code programs, like ‘ADD’
(addition), ‘SUB’ (subtraction), JMP (jump) etc.
• Variables are represented by symbolic names, not as memory locations, like MOV A, here
‘A’ is the variable.
• Symbolic code,
• error checking,
• Changes can be quickly and easily incorporated with a re-assembly,
• Programming aids are included for relocation and expression evaluation.
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9.2 Advantages of assembly language programming
• Easy to understand and use
• Easy to locate and correct errors
• Easy to modify
• No worry to address.
• Efficient than machine language programming
9.3 Disadvantages of assembly language programming
• The programmer requires knowledge of the processor architecture and instruction set.
• Machine language coding
• Many instructions are required to achieve small tasks
• Source programs tend to be large and difficult to follow
9.4 Some instructions set of Intel 8085 microprocessor according to assembly
language programming
• ADD r:- add
• ADD M:- Add to Memory
• ADC r:-add with carry
• ADC M:-add with carry to memory
• LDI :- This instruction stands for load immediate and it means load' (put) into a particular
named register a certain value named in the instruction
• LDA a:- load accumulator direct
• SLA: -means shift the contents of a register one place to the left.
• MOV:-means to move data from one place to desired place
• MOV M A:- means to move the result from memory to register A
• STA:- Store on register(accumulator or others)
• STA a: - store to accumulator.
• JMP- Jump to somewhere
• SUB r :– subtract
• SUB M:- subtract memory
• CY:-carry
REFERENCES
1. Nichols, A. J. (1976). An overview of microprocessor applications. Proceedings of the IEEE, 64(6),
951-953.
2. Shriver, B. D., & Smith, B. (1998). The Anatomy of a High Performance Microprocessor (Interactive
Book/CD-ROM): A Systems Perspective with Cdrom. IEEE Computer Society Press.
3. Spruth, W. (2012). The design of a microprocessor. Springer Science & Business Media.
4. Orlando, R. V., & Anderson, T. L. (1981). An overview of the 9900 microprocessor family. IEEE
Micro, 1(3), 38-44.
5. Imani, Mahdi, and Ulisses Braga-Neto. "Multiple model adaptive controller for partially-
observed Boolean dynamical systems." Proceedings of the 2017 American ControlConference
(ACC2017), Seattle, WA. 2017.
6. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/microprocessor/microprocessor_overview.htm
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7. http://www.worldofcomputing.net/processor/microprocessor.html
8. http://www.computerhistory.org/microprocessors/
9. http://spectrum.ieee.org/computing/hardware/the-surprising-story-of-the-first-microprocessors
10. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Microprocessor_Design/Computer_Architecture
11. http://beams.ulb.ac.be/courses/ma1/microprocessor-architectures
12. http://www.brighthubengineering.com/diy-electronics-devices/51225-architecture-of-8085-
microprocessors-part-one/