This document provides an overview of microprocessors and the 8085 microprocessor. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from early business calculators and home computers to modern devices. It then describes the internal architecture of the 8085 microprocessor, including its functional blocks like the ALU, registers, flags, and buses. Finally, it outlines the five generations of microprocessors and provides details on the pin configuration and functions of the 8085 microprocessor.
The microprocessor is a central processing unit contained on a single chip. It acts as the brain of the computer and controls all other components. As technology has advanced, microprocessors have become faster, smaller, and more powerful over time. A computer uses a microprocessor as its CPU and is called a microcomputer. The microprocessor accepts data from input devices, processes it according to instructions in memory, and outputs results.
The document provides an overview of microprocessors, including what they are, their basic components and functions. It discusses how a microprocessor:
- Acts as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer to provide computational control
- Can be programmed to perform functions on data by writing instructions into its memory
- Has components like an arithmetic logic unit, registers, cache memory and bus interfaces to transfer data and addresses
This document describes the features and pin diagram of the 8085 microprocessor. It is an 8-bit processor that operates on a 5V power supply. It has 40 pins, including an 8-bit multiplexed address and data bus. The pin functions described include the address bus (A8-A15), data bus (AD0-AD7), control signals like RD and WR, status signals like IO/M and S0-S1, power supply pins VCC and VSS, interrupt pins like TRAP and INTR, externally initiated signals like INTA and RESET, serial I/O signals SOD and SID, and clock signals X1, X2, and CLK OUT.
This document discusses the history and evolution of microprocessors over four generations from 1971 to present. It focuses on 8-bit microprocessors, which are most common in sensor and actuator systems. Key features of 8-bit microprocessors discussed include word length, memory addressing, clock speeds, input/output pins, timers, and programmability. Microprocessors provide flexible programmable control and can be configured by engineers for various tasks.
Keypad is a common interface with any microcontroller. This presentation gives details of keypad can be interfaced with 8051. The key pressed may be dispalyed on LCD/7 segment/LED displays.
8085 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE AND ITS OPERATIONSRamaPrabha24
This document discusses the architecture and operations of microprocessors. It focuses on the Intel 8085 microprocessor. The 8085 architecture consists of a register array, ALU and logic group, instruction decoder and encoder, interrupt control group, and serial I/O control group. The register array contains general purpose registers, temporary registers, special purpose registers like the accumulator, flags register, and instruction register, and 16-bit registers like the program counter and stack pointer. The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations. The instruction decoder decodes instructions and the timing and control circuitry manages the sequencing of operations. Microprocessor operations include memory reads/writes, I/O reads/writes using address, data and control buses, internal data operations
A microprocessor is a computer processor contained on a microchip. It contains the central processing unit (CPU) and performs arithmetic and logic operations. Microprocessors have evolved over generations from processing instructions serially to employing super scalar processing with over 10 million transistors. They are used in devices like computers, phones, and traffic lights to process instructions and control functions. The internal architecture of microprocessors like the Intel 8086 contains a bus interface unit that handles data transfer and an execution unit that decodes instructions and performs arithmetic logic operations.
The PIC microcontroller uses a Harvard architecture with separate program and data memories. It has a CPU with an ALU, memory unit, and control unit. The memory includes program memory to store instructions, data memory including registers for temporary data storage, and EEPROM for storing variables. It has advantages like a small instruction set, low cost, and built-in interfaces like I2C, SPI, and analog components.
The microprocessor is a central processing unit contained on a single chip. It acts as the brain of the computer and controls all other components. As technology has advanced, microprocessors have become faster, smaller, and more powerful over time. A computer uses a microprocessor as its CPU and is called a microcomputer. The microprocessor accepts data from input devices, processes it according to instructions in memory, and outputs results.
The document provides an overview of microprocessors, including what they are, their basic components and functions. It discusses how a microprocessor:
- Acts as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer to provide computational control
- Can be programmed to perform functions on data by writing instructions into its memory
- Has components like an arithmetic logic unit, registers, cache memory and bus interfaces to transfer data and addresses
This document describes the features and pin diagram of the 8085 microprocessor. It is an 8-bit processor that operates on a 5V power supply. It has 40 pins, including an 8-bit multiplexed address and data bus. The pin functions described include the address bus (A8-A15), data bus (AD0-AD7), control signals like RD and WR, status signals like IO/M and S0-S1, power supply pins VCC and VSS, interrupt pins like TRAP and INTR, externally initiated signals like INTA and RESET, serial I/O signals SOD and SID, and clock signals X1, X2, and CLK OUT.
This document discusses the history and evolution of microprocessors over four generations from 1971 to present. It focuses on 8-bit microprocessors, which are most common in sensor and actuator systems. Key features of 8-bit microprocessors discussed include word length, memory addressing, clock speeds, input/output pins, timers, and programmability. Microprocessors provide flexible programmable control and can be configured by engineers for various tasks.
Keypad is a common interface with any microcontroller. This presentation gives details of keypad can be interfaced with 8051. The key pressed may be dispalyed on LCD/7 segment/LED displays.
8085 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE AND ITS OPERATIONSRamaPrabha24
This document discusses the architecture and operations of microprocessors. It focuses on the Intel 8085 microprocessor. The 8085 architecture consists of a register array, ALU and logic group, instruction decoder and encoder, interrupt control group, and serial I/O control group. The register array contains general purpose registers, temporary registers, special purpose registers like the accumulator, flags register, and instruction register, and 16-bit registers like the program counter and stack pointer. The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations. The instruction decoder decodes instructions and the timing and control circuitry manages the sequencing of operations. Microprocessor operations include memory reads/writes, I/O reads/writes using address, data and control buses, internal data operations
A microprocessor is a computer processor contained on a microchip. It contains the central processing unit (CPU) and performs arithmetic and logic operations. Microprocessors have evolved over generations from processing instructions serially to employing super scalar processing with over 10 million transistors. They are used in devices like computers, phones, and traffic lights to process instructions and control functions. The internal architecture of microprocessors like the Intel 8086 contains a bus interface unit that handles data transfer and an execution unit that decodes instructions and performs arithmetic logic operations.
The PIC microcontroller uses a Harvard architecture with separate program and data memories. It has a CPU with an ALU, memory unit, and control unit. The memory includes program memory to store instructions, data memory including registers for temporary data storage, and EEPROM for storing variables. It has advantages like a small instruction set, low cost, and built-in interfaces like I2C, SPI, and analog components.
This document provides an overview of microprocessors. It discusses that a microprocessor is a clock driven semiconductor device manufactured using LSI or VLSI techniques. It can be divided into an arithmetic logic unit, register array, and control unit. Memory stores binary instructions and data for the microprocessor. Input/output devices allow communication with external components via a system bus. The document also discusses microprocessor architecture, languages like assembly and machine code, and provides details on the 8085 microprocessor from Intel including its address bus, data bus and control bus.
The document provides information about the 8085 microprocessor. It begins with an introduction and pin diagram. It then describes the pin functions and architecture, including the arithmetic logic unit, registers, program counter, and stack pointer. It discusses the timing and states of memory read, write, and I/O cycles. It explains how to interface memory and I/O devices to the 8085 bus. It covers the different interrupt types and how the 8085 responds to interrupts. Finally, it provides a short code example to add two numbers.
The 8051 microcontroller has an 8-bit CPU, 4K ROM, 128 bytes RAM, two 16-bit timers, 32 I/O lines, and serial port. It uses an accumulator, B register, program status word and stack pointer along with arithmetic logic unit and instruction decoder to perform operations. The memory includes internal ROM, RAM, and external memory accessed via a 16-bit data pointer and program counter.
The document provides information about the 8085 microprocessor architecture. It discusses that a microprocessor is a digital device on a chip that can fetch and execute instructions from memory to perform arithmetic and logical operations. The 8085 microprocessor contains general purpose registers like B, C, D, E, H, and L that are used to hold data. It also has special purpose registers like the program counter, stack pointer, and accumulator. The microprocessor uses an arithmetic logic unit to perform operations and includes components like the instruction register and decoder, flags register, and timing and control circuits.
This document discusses microprocessors and networking. It provides details on microprocessors such as their components like the ALU, registers and control unit. It describes early microprocessors like the 4004 and 8085. It also discusses microprocessor memory, buses and different types of integrated circuits. The document also defines what a computer network is and the different ways of physically connecting computers through guided media like coaxial cable, twisted pair and fiber optic cable. It explains wireless connections using infrared, radio frequency and microwave communications.
The DMA controller (8257) allows data transfer between I/O devices and memory without CPU involvement. It has 4 independent channels that can be programmed to transfer data via DMA read, write, or verify operations. The 8257 interfaces with the 8085 microprocessor by controlling address/data buses and generating control signals during DMA cycles when it acts as the bus master.
The document discusses interfacing RS232 with microcontrollers. RS232 uses asynchronous communication and the UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter) to interface with microcontrollers like the ATmel 89C51. The MAX232 IC is used as a driver to interface RS232 with other devices. Baud rates for communication are set using special function registers in the microcontroller that control the serial port. The baud rate can be doubled by setting the SMOD bit in the PCON register. Data is transmitted by storing it in the serial buffer and cleared the transmit interrupt flag, and received by reading the serial buffer when the receive interrupt flag is set. Functions make it easier to send and receive multiple characters of data through the
A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. It is used in embedded systems to make decisions. The AVR ATmega8 is an 8-bit microcontroller based on Harvard architecture. It has 8KB of flash memory, 512B of EEPROM, and 1KB of SRAM. It contains peripherals like timers, PWM channels, ADC, and serial interfaces. The ATmega8 comes in PDIP and TQFP packages and uses three registers - DDRx, PORTx, and PINx - to communicate with its I/O ports.
The document discusses the history and architecture of microprocessors. It begins with the earliest 4-bit microprocessor, the Intel 4004 from 1971. It then covers the development of 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and now modern 64-bit microprocessors. The core components of a microprocessor including the ALU, registers, and control unit are described. Specific examples like the Intel 8085 8-bit microprocessor are explained in detail, including its architecture, registers, flags, and sample assembly language programs.
The document discusses asynchronous and synchronous serial communication using the 8251A USART chip. It describes the basics of serial communication including synchronous vs asynchronous transmission. It provides details on the components and functioning of the 8251A USART chip, including its transmitter, receiver, control logic and modem control sections. The chip allows for full-duplex serial communication and can operate in both synchronous and asynchronous modes. It converts parallel data from the microprocessor to serial data for transmission and vice versa on reception.
The document discusses the microprocessor 8085. It covers the following topics over 5 weeks: basic concepts of microprocessors, the architecture of the 8085, addressing modes and instruction set, interrupts, and peripherals. The 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor that uses 246 bit patterns to form its 74 instruction set. An assembly language uses mnemonics like "INR A" to represent instructions, making programs easier for humans to understand compared to machine language.
The 8085 microprocessor uses several addressing modes to specify the operands in instructions. These include implied, immediate, direct, register, and register indirect addressing modes. Implied addressing mode does not specify operands as they are implicit in the instruction. Immediate addressing mode embeds the operand in the instruction itself. Direct addressing directly specifies the memory location of the operand. Register addressing uses register operands. Register indirect addressing specifies the operand address using a register pair like the HL register.
The document discusses the architecture of the Intel 8085 microprocessor. It describes the 8085 as an 8-bit microprocessor introduced in 1976 that uses a single +5 volt power supply. The internal architecture includes a control unit, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), registers including the accumulator, program counter, stack pointer, instruction register/decoder, and timing and control unit. The document also briefly discusses interrupts, serial I/O, and some applications of microprocessors like mobile phones, watches, and appliances.
The document discusses the organization and operation of dynamic random access memory (DRAM). DRAM uses capacitors to store bits of data in memory cells that must be periodically refreshed. It describes how DRAM cells are arranged in a grid structure with rows and columns, and how row and column addresses are used to access individual cells. The document also explains techniques like fast page mode that allow for faster access to blocks of data within the same row without needing to reselect the row address.
The document discusses interrupts for the PIC18 microcontroller. It explains that interrupts allow the microcontroller to instantly respond to events like pin changes or timer overflows. When an interrupt occurs, the microcontroller stops executing the main program and jumps to the interrupt service routine (ISR) to handle the interrupt. It provides details on enabling and disabling interrupts, the interrupt vector table, and examples of using interrupts for external pins, timers, and serial communication.
Challenges faced during embedded system design:
The challenges in design of embedded systems have always been in the same limiting requirements for decades: Small form factor; Low energy; Long-term stable performance without maintenance.
The document traces the history and development of microprocessors from 1971 to the present. It begins with the Intel 4004, the first commercial microprocessor released in 1971. Important subsequent microprocessors included the Intel 8080 in 1974 and 8085 in 1977. The Pentium brand was introduced in 1993 and included 64-bit x86 instruction sets. The Core 2 brand from 2006 featured single, dual, and quad-core processors. The document also provides basic explanations of how microprocessors work and their components like the ALU, registers, and control unit.
Microprocessors are electronic circuits that function as the central processing unit (CPU) of computers and other electronic devices. They incorporate arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry to perform computational tasks. Early microprocessors from the 1970s contained only a few thousand transistors, while modern microprocessors can contain over a billion transistors. Microprocessors are manufactured using complex semiconductor fabrication techniques involving deposition and etching of thin layers to build up the transistor circuits. They are key components that power all modern computers and many other electronic devices.
This document provides an overview of microprocessors. It discusses that a microprocessor is a clock driven semiconductor device manufactured using LSI or VLSI techniques. It can be divided into an arithmetic logic unit, register array, and control unit. Memory stores binary instructions and data for the microprocessor. Input/output devices allow communication with external components via a system bus. The document also discusses microprocessor architecture, languages like assembly and machine code, and provides details on the 8085 microprocessor from Intel including its address bus, data bus and control bus.
The document provides information about the 8085 microprocessor. It begins with an introduction and pin diagram. It then describes the pin functions and architecture, including the arithmetic logic unit, registers, program counter, and stack pointer. It discusses the timing and states of memory read, write, and I/O cycles. It explains how to interface memory and I/O devices to the 8085 bus. It covers the different interrupt types and how the 8085 responds to interrupts. Finally, it provides a short code example to add two numbers.
The 8051 microcontroller has an 8-bit CPU, 4K ROM, 128 bytes RAM, two 16-bit timers, 32 I/O lines, and serial port. It uses an accumulator, B register, program status word and stack pointer along with arithmetic logic unit and instruction decoder to perform operations. The memory includes internal ROM, RAM, and external memory accessed via a 16-bit data pointer and program counter.
The document provides information about the 8085 microprocessor architecture. It discusses that a microprocessor is a digital device on a chip that can fetch and execute instructions from memory to perform arithmetic and logical operations. The 8085 microprocessor contains general purpose registers like B, C, D, E, H, and L that are used to hold data. It also has special purpose registers like the program counter, stack pointer, and accumulator. The microprocessor uses an arithmetic logic unit to perform operations and includes components like the instruction register and decoder, flags register, and timing and control circuits.
This document discusses microprocessors and networking. It provides details on microprocessors such as their components like the ALU, registers and control unit. It describes early microprocessors like the 4004 and 8085. It also discusses microprocessor memory, buses and different types of integrated circuits. The document also defines what a computer network is and the different ways of physically connecting computers through guided media like coaxial cable, twisted pair and fiber optic cable. It explains wireless connections using infrared, radio frequency and microwave communications.
The DMA controller (8257) allows data transfer between I/O devices and memory without CPU involvement. It has 4 independent channels that can be programmed to transfer data via DMA read, write, or verify operations. The 8257 interfaces with the 8085 microprocessor by controlling address/data buses and generating control signals during DMA cycles when it acts as the bus master.
The document discusses interfacing RS232 with microcontrollers. RS232 uses asynchronous communication and the UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter) to interface with microcontrollers like the ATmel 89C51. The MAX232 IC is used as a driver to interface RS232 with other devices. Baud rates for communication are set using special function registers in the microcontroller that control the serial port. The baud rate can be doubled by setting the SMOD bit in the PCON register. Data is transmitted by storing it in the serial buffer and cleared the transmit interrupt flag, and received by reading the serial buffer when the receive interrupt flag is set. Functions make it easier to send and receive multiple characters of data through the
A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. It is used in embedded systems to make decisions. The AVR ATmega8 is an 8-bit microcontroller based on Harvard architecture. It has 8KB of flash memory, 512B of EEPROM, and 1KB of SRAM. It contains peripherals like timers, PWM channels, ADC, and serial interfaces. The ATmega8 comes in PDIP and TQFP packages and uses three registers - DDRx, PORTx, and PINx - to communicate with its I/O ports.
The document discusses the history and architecture of microprocessors. It begins with the earliest 4-bit microprocessor, the Intel 4004 from 1971. It then covers the development of 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and now modern 64-bit microprocessors. The core components of a microprocessor including the ALU, registers, and control unit are described. Specific examples like the Intel 8085 8-bit microprocessor are explained in detail, including its architecture, registers, flags, and sample assembly language programs.
The document discusses asynchronous and synchronous serial communication using the 8251A USART chip. It describes the basics of serial communication including synchronous vs asynchronous transmission. It provides details on the components and functioning of the 8251A USART chip, including its transmitter, receiver, control logic and modem control sections. The chip allows for full-duplex serial communication and can operate in both synchronous and asynchronous modes. It converts parallel data from the microprocessor to serial data for transmission and vice versa on reception.
The document discusses the microprocessor 8085. It covers the following topics over 5 weeks: basic concepts of microprocessors, the architecture of the 8085, addressing modes and instruction set, interrupts, and peripherals. The 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor that uses 246 bit patterns to form its 74 instruction set. An assembly language uses mnemonics like "INR A" to represent instructions, making programs easier for humans to understand compared to machine language.
The 8085 microprocessor uses several addressing modes to specify the operands in instructions. These include implied, immediate, direct, register, and register indirect addressing modes. Implied addressing mode does not specify operands as they are implicit in the instruction. Immediate addressing mode embeds the operand in the instruction itself. Direct addressing directly specifies the memory location of the operand. Register addressing uses register operands. Register indirect addressing specifies the operand address using a register pair like the HL register.
The document discusses the architecture of the Intel 8085 microprocessor. It describes the 8085 as an 8-bit microprocessor introduced in 1976 that uses a single +5 volt power supply. The internal architecture includes a control unit, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), registers including the accumulator, program counter, stack pointer, instruction register/decoder, and timing and control unit. The document also briefly discusses interrupts, serial I/O, and some applications of microprocessors like mobile phones, watches, and appliances.
The document discusses the organization and operation of dynamic random access memory (DRAM). DRAM uses capacitors to store bits of data in memory cells that must be periodically refreshed. It describes how DRAM cells are arranged in a grid structure with rows and columns, and how row and column addresses are used to access individual cells. The document also explains techniques like fast page mode that allow for faster access to blocks of data within the same row without needing to reselect the row address.
The document discusses interrupts for the PIC18 microcontroller. It explains that interrupts allow the microcontroller to instantly respond to events like pin changes or timer overflows. When an interrupt occurs, the microcontroller stops executing the main program and jumps to the interrupt service routine (ISR) to handle the interrupt. It provides details on enabling and disabling interrupts, the interrupt vector table, and examples of using interrupts for external pins, timers, and serial communication.
Challenges faced during embedded system design:
The challenges in design of embedded systems have always been in the same limiting requirements for decades: Small form factor; Low energy; Long-term stable performance without maintenance.
The document traces the history and development of microprocessors from 1971 to the present. It begins with the Intel 4004, the first commercial microprocessor released in 1971. Important subsequent microprocessors included the Intel 8080 in 1974 and 8085 in 1977. The Pentium brand was introduced in 1993 and included 64-bit x86 instruction sets. The Core 2 brand from 2006 featured single, dual, and quad-core processors. The document also provides basic explanations of how microprocessors work and their components like the ALU, registers, and control unit.
Microprocessors are electronic circuits that function as the central processing unit (CPU) of computers and other electronic devices. They incorporate arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry to perform computational tasks. Early microprocessors from the 1970s contained only a few thousand transistors, while modern microprocessors can contain over a billion transistors. Microprocessors are manufactured using complex semiconductor fabrication techniques involving deposition and etching of thin layers to build up the transistor circuits. They are key components that power all modern computers and many other electronic devices.
This document provides an introduction to microcomputers and microprocessors. It discusses how a microprocessor is the central processing unit (CPU) of a microcomputer. A microcomputer system consists of a CPU (microprocessor), memory, and input/output devices connected by buses. The document then traces the evolution of microprocessors from the first 4-bit Intel 4004 in 1971 to more advanced 32-bit and 64-bit processors over subsequent decades. It provides details on characteristics of important processors like the Intel 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium series. The document concludes with information on the internal structure of the Intel 8085 microprocessor.
The Intel 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor that can access up to 1 MB of memory. It has two main components: the Bus Interface Unit (BIU) handles bus operations like instruction fetching and memory access, while the Execution Unit (EU) decodes and executes instructions. The BIU contains registers for the code, data, extra, and stack segments as well as an instruction queue. The EU has registers for accumulation, base, count, data, pointers, and flags, and contains an ALU and decoder. It executes instructions from the queued bytes using a pipeline architecture.
The 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor that operates on a single +5V power supply. It has features like 16 address lines allowing access to 64KB of memory, 8 I/O address lines, and ability to operate at up to 3MHz clock frequency. The architecture of the 8085 includes registers like accumulator, flag, and program counter registers, an ALU, and functional blocks for instruction decoding, addressing, interrupts, and I/O. It has a 40-pin package with connections for power, data/address bus, control signals, interrupts, serial I/O, DMA and reset.
The 8086 processor has a 1MB address space divided into two 512KB banks connected to the lower and upper halves of the 16-bit data bus. Data can be accessed from memory in 8-bit or 16-bit sizes from either the even or odd address banks using different combinations of address lines and enabling the appropriate bank. Accessing 16-bit data starting from an odd address requires two bus cycles to retrieve the lower byte first from the odd bank then the upper byte from the even bank by incrementing the address.
The document provides formatting guidelines for preparing a project report, including:
1. The sequence and binding of the report contents such as the cover page, certificate, abstract, etc.
2. Typing instructions regarding report length, formatting, margins, and page numbering.
3. Instructions for formatting chapters, tables, figures, and references.
The document discusses the 8085 microprocessor. It describes the main components of a microprocessor including the ALU, control unit, registers, memory and I/O. It explains the different types of memory like ROM and RAM. It then lists some common applications of microprocessors and describes the bus structure of the 8085 including the address, data and control buses. Finally, it provides details on the pin diagram and functions of the various pins of the 8085 microprocessor.
This document discusses registers and counters. It defines registers as memory devices that can store multiple bits of information using flip-flops. There are several types of registers discussed, including shift registers, parallel in-serial out shift registers, and serial in-parallel out shift registers. Counters are also defined as sequential circuits that count through a predefined sequence of states. Asynchronous and synchronous counters are described as the two main types.
The document discusses timing diagrams and processor cycles in microprocessors. It begins by defining a timing diagram as the display of initiation of read/write operations under control of status signals. It then discusses:
1) A machine cycle is the time required for a microprocessor to access memory or I/O devices. It consists of multiple clock cycles.
2) An instruction cycle is the time to fetch and execute an instruction, and consists of one or more machine cycles. Fetch cycle reads the instruction from memory while execute cycle decodes and acts on it.
3) The first machine cycle of any instruction is always an opcode fetch cycle to read the instruction code from memory. Additional machine cycles may be needed for instructions
Addressing mode & data transfer instruction of 8085Chinmayee samal
The document discusses addressing modes and data transfer instructions of the 8085 microprocessor. It defines addressing modes as the various ways of specifying operands in an instruction. The 8085 supports direct, register, indirect, immediate, and implied addressing modes. It then explains each data transfer instruction in detail, including MOV, MVI, LDA, LHLD, STA, XCHG, PUSH and POP. The instructions are used to move data between registers and memory in the microprocessor.
The document discusses microprocessors, microcontrollers, and the 8085 microprocessor. It defines a microprocessor as a programmable device that performs arithmetic and logical operations on numbers according to a stored program. A microcontroller is similar but has memory and I/O functions integrated on a single chip. The 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor with 40 pins that can address 64KB of memory and has 74 instructions across 5 addressing modes. It uses multiplexed address and data lines to reduce pins.
The document discusses the Intel 80286 microprocessor. It was introduced in 1982 as the 5th generation of Intel's x86 family. It had several improvements over the 8086 including a faster clock speed of 12.5MHz, more transistors at 125K, and an advanced memory management system. The 80286 could address up to 16MB of memory and had two operating modes: real address mode for compatibility and protected virtual address mode for multitasking. It also introduced the ability to use virtual memory in protected mode.
The document provides information on the architecture of the 8086 microprocessor. It describes the Execution Unit (EU) and Bus Interface Unit (BIU) that partition the CPU logic. The EU is responsible for executing instructions while the BIU handles fetching instructions and operands from memory. The EU contains an ALU, registers including general purpose, segment, pointer and index registers, and a flag register. It also describes the various addressing modes supported by the 8086.
This document is a seminar report submitted by Mukesh Kumar for partial fulfillment of a Bachelor of Technology degree in Mechanical Engineering. It discusses thermal power plants, including an overview of their operation and efficiency, descriptions of typical components like boilers and steam cycles, and examples of power plants located in India with a focus on those in Rajasthan. The document received certification from internal and external examiners for Mukesh Kumar's seminar work on the topic of thermal power plants.
The document provides an overview of the 8086/8088 microprocessor architecture. It discusses the main components including the Bus Interface Unit (BIU) and Execution Unit (EU) that work in parallel to implement a two-stage pipeline. It describes the various registers like the segment, index, pointer, and flag registers. It also covers the different addressing modes used to calculate physical memory addresses from segment and offset values in real mode.
Seminar Report on MHD (Magneto Hydro Dynamics)Ravi Anand
This document provides a technical seminar report on magneto hydrodynamic (MHD) power generation. It discusses the working principle of MHD generators, provides a brief history of MHD, describes the different types of MHD generators (Faraday, Hall, and disc generators), and discusses how MHD generators can be integrated with conventional thermal power plants to improve efficiency. The document concludes that MHD power generation offers efficiency improvements over conventional systems and has the potential to help address growing energy demands.
The 80386 microprocessor had two main versions - the 80386DX with a 32-bit address and data bus, and the 80386SX with a 24-bit address bus and 16-bit data bus. The 80386SX was developed later for applications that did not require the full 32-bit capabilities of the 80386DX. The 80386 supported protected mode which enabled virtual memory, paging, and memory protection in addition to the capabilities of the 80286. It had enhanced registers, addressing modes, and memory management compared to earlier Intel processors.
The document discusses the 8085 microprocessor. It provides details on its architecture, components, registers, addressing modes, and applications. The key points are:
1. The 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor that serves as the central processing unit of a computer. It contains an ALU, registers, and a control unit.
2. It has general purpose registers like the accumulator, flags, program counter, and stack pointer. Instructions are fetched and executed sequentially.
3. The 8085 supports various addressing modes like immediate, register, direct, and indirect addressing to access memory locations and transfer data.
4. Microprocessors are used in applications like instrumentation, control systems, communication devices,
The document discusses the 8085 microprocessor. It provides details on its architecture, components, registers, addressing modes, and applications. Some key points:
- The 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor that serves as the central processing unit of a computer. It contains an ALU, registers, flag registers and more.
- It has various addressing modes like immediate, register, direct, and indirect to access memory locations and transfer data.
- Registers like the accumulator, program counter, and stack pointer help process instructions and move data. Flag registers store status codes.
- Applications include uses in calculators, industrial controllers, communication systems, office automation, and more due to its low cost
The document provides an overview of the history and development of microprocessors. It discusses how the invention of the transistor led to the development of integrated circuits and eventually microprocessors. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004 designed in 1971. This began the shift to smaller and more affordable personal computers. The document then discusses the architecture of the 8085 microprocessor, including its arithmetic logic unit, registers, buses, and classification based on data width and application.
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. [1]
Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems. The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances. Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when you open them. A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several generations of microprocessors including their increasing transistor counts, decreasing feature sizes, higher clock speeds, and wider data buses. It also discusses the evolution into different categories like dedicated controllers, bit-slice processors, and general purpose CPUs. Key microprocessors highlighted include the Intel 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium lines.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several generations of microprocessors including their increasing transistor counts, decreasing feature sizes, higher clock speeds, and wider data buses. It also discusses the evolution into different categories like dedicated controllers, bit-slice processors, and general purpose CPUs. Key microprocessors highlighted include the Intel 4004, 8008, 8080, 8085, 8086, 80386, and Pentium lines.
Over view of Microprocessor 8085 and its applicationiosrjce
Microprocessor is a program controlled semiconductor device (IC), which fetches, decode and
executes instructions. It is versatile in application and is flexible to some extent.
Nowadays, modern microprocessors can perform extremely sophisticated operations in areas such as
meteorology, aviation, nuclear physics and engineering, and take up much less space as well as delivering
superior performance Here is a brief review of microprocessor and its various application
The document provides an overview of the Intel 8085 microprocessor, including:
1) The Intel 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor introduced in 1977 that was faster and required fewer external components than its predecessor, the 8080.
2) It has eight 8-bit registers (Accumulator, B, C, D, E, H, L, and Program Status Word) and can address up to 64KB of memory.
3) It performs arithmetic and logical operations using an Arithmetic Logic Unit and is controlled by a timing and control unit that decodes instructions and generates control signals.
4) It has interrupt capabilities and can perform serial input/output. The 8085 had many applications due to its versatility
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and 8080 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several key processors throughout history like the Intel 8085, an 8-bit processor that was popular in the late 1970s/early 1980s. The document also provides details on the architecture and features of the Intel 8085 microprocessor, including its registers, ALU, address and data buses, instruction set, and interrupt handling capabilities.
The document summarizes the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit processors like the Intel 4004 and Intel 8008 to modern 64-bit processors. It describes several important processors throughout history like the Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Intel 8086, and Motorola 68000. It also provides details about the Intel 8085 8-bit microprocessor, including its architecture, registers, signals, and features. The evolution has progressed from dedicated controllers to general purpose CPUs with increasing bits, speed, memory capacity, and functionality.
This document provides information about microcontrollers and the Intel 8051 microcontroller. It begins with definitions of microprocessors and microcontrollers, distinguishing that microcontrollers contain memory and I/O ports on a single chip. The Intel 8051 microcontroller is then described in detail, including its architecture, features such as 4KB program memory, 128 bytes of RAM, and I/O ports. Development tools for microcontrollers like editors, assemblers, compilers and debuggers are explained. Finally, the architecture and features of the 8051 like registers, program counter, and stack are outlined.
This document provides information about microcontrollers and the Intel 8051 microcontroller. It begins with definitions of microprocessors and microcontrollers, distinguishing that microcontrollers contain memory and I/O ports on a single chip. The Intel 8051 microcontroller is then described in detail, including its architecture, features such as 4KB program memory, 128 bytes of RAM, and I/O ports. Development tools for microcontrollers like editors, assemblers, compilers and debuggers are explained. Finally, the architecture and features of the 8051 like registers, program counter, and stack are outlined.
MPMC UNIT-1. Microprocessor 8085 pdf Microprocessor and MicrocontrollerRAHUL RANJAN
Diploma in Electrical Engineering MICROPROCESSOR AND MICROCONTROLLER UNIT-1 Full Notes 📝 Microprocessor 8085 State Board Of Technical Education [SBTE] BIHAR
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT EMBEDDED SYSTEM.pptxMeghdeepSingh
This document provides an overview of embedded systems and microcontrollers. It defines a microcontroller as a single-chip computer containing memory, input/output circuitry, and other components to function without additional support. The document describes the features and components of a typical microcontroller, including registers, instruction sets, addressing modes, and peripherals. It compares microcontrollers to microprocessors and provides examples of using LEDs and 7-segment displays with microcontrollers.
Evolution of Computing Microprocessors and SoCsazmathmoosa
The document discusses the evolution of microprocessors from the early 4004 chip in 1969 to modern multi-core processors. It highlights several generations of Intel x86 processors including the 4004, 8086, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium 4, and later processors using the Core microarchitecture. Each new generation brought improvements like higher clock speeds, additional instructions sets, and architectural changes like pipelining to improve performance. The Pentium 4 introduced the NetBurst microarchitecture with a 20-stage pipeline and new capabilities like hyperthreading.
Difference between i3 and i5 and i7 and core 2 duo pdfnavendu shekhar
The document compares and contrasts Intel Core i3, i5, and i7 processors. It provides details on their core configurations, clock speeds, features like hyper-threading, turbo boost, virtualization support, and instruction sets. It also explains the difference between single-core, dual-core, and quad-core processors. Additionally, it provides information on Turbo Boost technology, which allows processor cores to run faster than their rated frequency under certain conditions.
The document discusses microprocessors and their evolution. It defines a microprocessor as an electronic chip that functions as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. Microprocessors contain both combinational and sequential digital logic and are programmable, clock-driven, register-based integrated circuits that accept binary data as input, process it according to stored instructions, and provide results as output. Examples of where microprocessors are used include washing machines, mobile phones, TV remotes, and laptops/computers. The document then outlines the evolution of microprocessors from early 4-bit and 8-bit designs to later 16-bit and 32-bit microprocessors.
The document discusses the introduction to microprocessors and microcomputers. It begins by defining a microcomputer as a small, inexpensive computer with a microprocessor as its central processing unit. It then covers topics like the block diagram of a microcomputer, machine language, assembly language, what is a microprocessor, and the working of a microprocessor. It also provides details about the 8085 microprocessor architecture including its register array, ALU, instruction decoding, interrupts, I/O ports, pin descriptions and status signals.
The document discusses microprocessors and interrupts in computer systems. It describes how the first microprocessor was developed by Intel and Busicom in 1971. It then covers several Intel microprocessor models from the 4004 to the 8088 and beyond. The document also defines interrupts as signals that cause the CPU to pause its current task and service the interrupt. It distinguishes between maskable, non-maskable, software, and hardware interrupts and provides examples of each. Finally, it discusses the different software interrupts available in the 8085 microprocessor.
Microprocessors are central processing units contained on a single chip. They power modern computers and digital devices. A microprocessor has several components including a control unit, arithmetic logic unit, registers, instruction decoder, and bus interface unit. It communicates with memory and peripherals using an instruction set and addressing modes. Interfacing devices like USART, PPI, and DMA controllers allow microprocessors to connect to external components and transfer data. Interrupts and polling allow microprocessors to multitask and respond to events. Microprocessors have evolved over generations from 4-bit to 64-bit designs, increasing capabilities.
Similar to Introduction to microprocessor notes (20)
This document discusses various applications of embedded systems including temperature measurement using thermistors and linear temperature sensors like the LM35. It describes how to interface the LM35 temperature sensor with an 8-bit ADC0809 and microcontroller port for temperature readings. It also discusses controlling a stepper motor and interfacing it to port pins of a microcontroller. Finally, it explains interfacing a 2x16 LCD display and keyboard matrix to a microcontroller for input/output applications.
This document provides an overview of microprocessors and the 8085 microprocessor. It discusses the evolution of microprocessors from early business calculators and home computers to modern devices. It then describes the internal architecture of the 8085 microprocessor, including its functional blocks like the ALU, registers, flags, and buses. Finally, it outlines the five generations of microprocessors and provides details on the pin configuration and functions of the 8085 microprocessor.
The 8051 microcontroller has an 8-bit architecture and uses 8-bit registers. It can process data larger than 8 bits by breaking it down. The DB directive is used to define byte-sized data in various formats. The ORG and EQU directives set the program origin and define constants, while END marks the end of an assembly file. The document also describes accessing individual I/O port bits and toggling or checking their states using instructions like SETB, XLR, JNB, and JB.
The document discusses the addressing modes, instruction set, and assembly language programming of the 8051 microcontroller. It describes the five addressing modes of 8051 - immediate, direct, register, register indirect, and indexed addressing modes. It also explains some common arithmetic, logical, and other instructions like ADD, AND, OR, XOR, INC, DEC etc. and provides examples of using these instructions to manipulate data in registers and memory locations.
The 8051 microcontroller has an 8-bit architecture and uses assembler directives like DB, ORG, and EQU to define data and constants. It allows individual bits of I/O ports to be accessed using instructions like SETB, CLR, JNB, and JB, enabling control of devices with bit-level granularity. Read-modify-write instructions also allow reading, modifying, and writing port values in a single operation.
The document discusses decimation in time (DIT) and decimation in frequency (DIF) fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms. DIT breaks down an N-point sequence into smaller DFTs of even and odd indexed samples, recursively computing smaller and smaller DFTs until individual points remain. DIF similarly decomposes the computation but by breaking the frequency domain spectrum into smaller DFTs. Both algorithms reduce the computational complexity of computing the discrete Fourier transform from O(N^2) to O(NlogN) operations.
RTLinux is a real-time operating system that allows real-time applications to run on top of Linux. It modifies the Linux kernel to add a virtual machine layer with a separate task scheduler that prioritizes real-time tasks over standard Linux processes. This enables RTLinux to support hard real-time deadlines. Programming in RTLinux involves creating modules that can be loaded and unloaded from the kernel using specific commands. Real-time threads and synchronization objects like mutexes are implemented using POSIX interfaces.
The document discusses the addressing modes and instruction set of the 8051 microcontroller. It describes the 5 addressing modes of the 8051 as immediate, register, direct, register indirect, and indexed. It then explains some example instructions from the arithmetic, logical, data transfer, branching/looping instruction groups of the 8051 instruction set.
The document discusses I/O ports and timers in the 8051 microcontroller. It describes the four 8-bit I/O ports (Port 0, Port 1, Port 2, Port 3) that can be configured as inputs or outputs. It also discusses the two 16-bit timer/counters (Timer 0 and Timer 1), their associated registers (TMOD and TCON), and operating modes. The ports and timers provide capabilities for interfacing with external devices and generating time delays or counting events.
MOS and CMOS technologies are types of field-effect transistors. MOS transistors use a metal gate separated from a semiconductor channel by an oxide layer. There are two types of MOS transistors: nMOS with a negatively doped silicon channel and pMOS with a positively doped channel. CMOS circuits combine both nMOS and pMOS transistors to construct logic gates. CMOS circuits have low power dissipation, higher noise immunity, and higher fan-out compared to other logic families.
This document discusses different logic families including Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL), Diode Transistor Logic (DTL), Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL), and Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL). It provides circuit diagrams and explanations of the working principles for each logic family. Key characteristics like fan-in, fan-out, propagation delay, noise immunity, and power dissipation are compared for each logic family.
This document discusses different types of non-linear circuits including clamping circuits, clippers, and peak detectors. Clamping circuits adjust the DC level of a waveform without changing its shape or amplitude. Clippers clip off portions of the input waveform above or below a reference voltage. Peak detectors track the input signal until detecting a peak value, then hold that value to provide voltage memory of the peak. Circuit diagrams and example waveforms are provided to illustrate the operation of these different non-linear circuits.
This document discusses different types of linked lists including single linked lists, double linked lists, circular linked lists, and circular double linked lists. It describes the basic operations that can be performed on linked lists such as creation, insertion, deletion, traversal, searching, concatenation, and display. It provides examples of how to insert and delete nodes from both single and double linked lists. The document also discusses recursive operations and advantages and disadvantages of using linked lists.
The document discusses arrays in data structures using C programming language. It defines what an array is and describes different types of arrays like one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and multi-dimensional arrays. It also explains array operations such as insertion, deletion, traversal, reversing, sorting, and searching. Additionally, it covers merging of arrays, arrays of pointers, and using arrays to represent polynomials.
Electromagnetic waves have different wavelengths and frequencies depending on their position in the electromagnetic spectrum. They all travel at the same speed of 300 million meters per second in a vacuum. Waves with longer wavelengths have lower frequencies while those with shorter wavelengths have higher frequencies. The higher the frequency, the higher the energy carried by the electromagnetic wave.
The document discusses satellite communications, including the basic components and orbits of communication satellites, how they are used to transmit signals, and some of their applications such as television, radio, and mobile phones. Key orbits discussed include LEO, MEO, and GEO orbits, and the advantages and disadvantages of each for communication purposes. The document also covers frequency allocation and some of the challenges of using satellites for communication.
This document provides an overview of electronics in daily life, including definitions of direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). It discusses the basics of different types of currents and their sources. It also summarizes different types of batteries including primary (non-rechargeable), secondary (rechargeable), and fuel cells. Additional topics covered include electrical accessories like holders, fuses, switches, and regulators. The document concludes with sections on short circuits, electric shock prevention, and electric bulbs.
This document contains instructions for electronics experiments for first year BSc students. It lists 10 experiments including converting a meter to an ohmmeter, verifying Kirchoff's laws, measuring voltage and frequency using an oscilloscope, and verifying theorems like Thevenin's, Norton's and maximum power transfer. For each experiment, the aim, apparatus, circuit diagrams, observation tables and results are provided to help students perform the experiments.
This document discusses combinational logic circuits such as adders, subtractors, multipliers, decoders, and multiplexers. It provides circuit diagrams and truth tables for half adders, full adders, half subtractors, full subtractors, decoders, and multiplexers. It also describes how to build binary adders and subtractors using these basic components and how multiplication of binary numbers is performed.
The document discusses applications of operational amplifiers (op-amps). It describes how op-amps can be used to build integrator and differentiator circuits by using feedback networks incorporating resistors and capacitors. It also discusses how op-amps can be used to create active filters, including low-pass and high-pass filters, for filtering signals.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
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Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
1. Dr. C. SARITHA
DEPT. OF ELECTRONICS
UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION TO MICROCOMPUTER AND MICROPROCESSOR
Microprocessor :
A microprocessor is a CPU integrated into a small silicon chip that comprise of thousands of small
components such as - diodes, transistors and resistors that work together.
(OR)
The term microprocessor typically refers to the central processing unit (CPU) of a microcomputer,
containing the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control units. It is typically
implemented on a single LSI chip.
(OR)
Microprocessor is a Central Processing Unit (CPU) etched on a single chip. A single Integrated
Circuit (IC) has all the functional components of a CPU namely Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU),
Control Unit and registers.
Evolution of Microprocessors :
Microprocessor has turned into the brain of millions of gadgets, since year 1971. Now, we have a
look at the gadgets in which the microprocessors are playing an important role.
Business Calculator: A business calculator was invented in the year 1971. The Unicom 141P
business calculator was out of the foremost gadgets that feature a microprocessor.
Commodore PET: The PET was invented in the year 1971 and is broadly recognized as the
primary all-in-one home computer.
Washing Machine: The foremost microchip controlled washing machines were launched in the
year 1977 and gave a bang to the market, showcasing the varied usages of innovative technology.
Arcade Mania in the year 1980: Namco pioneered Pac-Man in the walkways of the United States
and ignited a new trend.
1 S.S.B.N. DEGREE & PG COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS), ANANTAPURAMU
2. Dr. C. SARITHA
DEPT. OF ELECTRONICS
Osborne 1 Laptop: With five screen and 10.7kgs of weight, Osborne 1 Laptop was invented in the
year 1981. It actually was the great grand-father of most modern laptops.
Nintendo NES: Consoles revitalized the gaming industry in the year 1986 such as Nintendo
Entertainment System.
Computing Democratized: Personal & business computing blasted with a broad variety of
laptops, desktops & even early tabs. These inventions came up in the year 1991.
MP3 Player: The modern way to enjoy to music forever altered in the last 1990s with the foremost
MP3 player, which was invented in the year 1997.
BlackBerry: The Smartphone insurgence boosted with the launch of RIM’s Blackberry 850. The
1st BB was accessible in the year 1999.
Apple iPod: Apple launched its 1st iPod in the year 2001; its release gave the future of MP3 music
format a new selection of set tunes.
Microsoft Windows Tablet: Approximately a decade prior to the shopper’s fascination with tab,
Microsoft Windows Tablet was launched in the year 2002, business were employing these tabs for
more useful jobs.
Netbook: Netbooks were launched in the year 2008, as small and light-weighted gadget for
carrying out uncomplicated jobs and enjoying media & internet content on the move.
Apple iPod: Tabs strike the customers main-stream with the release of iPod in the year 2010.
Digital Signage in the year 2011: Digital Signage was 1st of the vast new usages for the
microprocessor. Intellectual, internet allied gadgets are more and more found in the daily life from
business and retail to farming and automobiles.
Ultrabook in the year 2011: The advancement of the Personal Computer takes an additional
gigantic step as trendy Ultrabook gadgets push ahead high performance computing experience.
Generations of microprocessors :
Microprocessors were categorized into five generations: first, second, third, fourth, and fifth
2 S.S.B.N. DEGREE & PG COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS), ANANTAPURAMU
3. Dr. C. SARITHA
DEPT. OF ELECTRONICS
generations. Their characteristics are described below:
First-generation
The microprocessors that were introduced in 1971 to 1972 were referred to as the first generation
systems. First-generation microprocessors processed their instructions serially—they fetched the
instruction, decoded it, then executed it. When an instruction was completed, the microprocessor
updated the instruction pointer and fetched the next instruction, performing this sequential drill for
each instruction in turn.
Second generation
By the late 1970s, enough transistors were available on the IC to usher in the second generation
of microprocessor sophistication: 16-bit arithmetic and pipelined instruction processing.
Motorola’s MC68000 microprocessor, introduced in 1979, is an example. Another example is
Intel’s 8080. This generation is defined by overlapped fetch, decode, and execute steps (Computer
1996). As the first instruction is processed in the execution unit, the second instruction is decoded
and the third instruction is fetched.
The distinction between the first and second generation devices was primarily the use of
newer semiconductor technology to fabricate the chips. This new technology resulted in a five-fold
increase in instruction, execution, speed, and higher chip densities.
Third generation
The third generation, introduced in 1978, was represented by Intel’s 8086 and the Zilog Z8000,
which were 16-bit processors with minicomputer-like performance. The third generation came
about as IC transistor counts approached 250,000.
Motorola’s MC68020, for example, incorporated an on-chip cache for the first time and the
depth of the pipeline increased to five or more stages. This generation of microprocessors was
different from the previous ones in that all major workstation manufacturers began developing
their own RISC-based microprocessor architectures (Computer, 1996).
Fourth generation
As the workstation companies converted from commercial microprocessors to in-house designs,
microprocessors entered their fourth generation with designs surpassing a million transistors.
Leading-edge microprocessors such as Intel’s 80960CA and Motorola’s 88100 could issue and
retire more than one instruction per clock cycle.
3 S.S.B.N. DEGREE & PG COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS), ANANTAPURAMU
4. Dr. C. SARITHA
DEPT. OF ELECTRONICS
Fifth generation
Microprocessors in their fifth generation, employed decoupled super scalar processing, and
their design soon surpassed 10 million transistors. In this generation, PCs are a low-margin,
high-volume-business dominated by a single microprocessor.
Salient features of 8085 microprocessor
· It is a 40 pin LSI chip
· Operates at Single + 5V Supply
· Operates with 3MHz single phase clock
· On-chip clock generator
· It has 8 data lines and 16 address lines
· It provides 74 instructions with 5 addressing modes
· It provides 5 hardware interrupts and 8 software interrupts
· It has one Serial In/Serial Out Port
· It is an 8 bit parallel central processing unit (CPU).
· It has Direct Addressing Capability to 64K bytes of memory
· It uses a multiplexed data bus. The address is split between the 8bit address bus and the 8bit
data bus.
Architecture of 8085 Microprocessor :
The functional block diagram or architecture of 8085 Microprocessor, gives the complete details
about a Microprocessor. It includes the ALU (Arithmetic and logic unit), timing and control unit,
instruction registers and decoder, register array, interrupt control, and serial I/O control etc. To
connect all the blocks with each other we need some buses such as address bus, data bus and
control bus. Fig.1. shows the Block diagram of a Microprocessor.
4 S.S.B.N. DEGREE & PG COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS), ANANTAPURAMU
5. Dr. C. SARITHA
DEPT. OF ELECTRONICS
Fig (1): Functional Block Diagram of 8085 Microprocessor
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
There is always a need to perform arithmetic operations like +, -, *, / and logical operations like
AND, OR, NOT etc. So there is a necessity for creating a separate unit which can perform such
type of operations. These operations are performed by the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU). ALU
performs these operations on 8-bit data.
But these operations cannot be performed unless we have an input (or) data on which the desired
operation is to be performed. ALU gets its Input from accumulator and temporary register. After
processing the necessary operations, the result is stored back in accumulator.
5 S.S.B.N. DEGREE & PG COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS), ANANTAPURAMU
6. Dr. C. SARITHA
DEPT. OF ELECTRONICS
Acumulator (A) :- It is an 8-bit register. It is used to store one of the operand in many instructions.
After the execution of most of the instructions the result is stored in the accumulator. That’s why
this is also called result register. It also works as a register for I/O access.
Temporary Register :- It is a 8-bit register. As the name suggests this register acts as a temporary
memory during the arithmetic and logical operations. Unlike other registers, this temporary register
can only be accessed by the microprocessor and it is completely inaccessible to programmers.
W and Z registers :- These are two 8- bit temporary registers used to hold temporary data
internally during the program execution. These are not accessible by the programmer.
Flags :-
Flags are nothing but a group of individual Flip-flops. The flags are mainly associated with
arithmetic and logic operations. The flags will show either a logic 0 or 1 (i.e.) a set or reset
depending on the data conditions in the accumulator or various other registers. A flag is actually a
latch which can hold some bits of information. It alerts the processor that some event has taken
place.
There are five flip-flops in the flag register. They are as follows:
1. Sign (S)
2. zero (Z)
3. Auxiliary carry (AC)
4. Parity (P)
5. Carry (C)
The bit position of the flip flops in flag register is:
6 S.S.B.N. DEGREE & PG COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS), ANANTAPURAMU
7. Dr. C. SARITHA
DEPT. OF ELECTRONICS
1. Sign (S) – If MSB of the result of an operation has a value 1, this flag is set otherwise it is reset.
2. Zero (Z) - If the result of an operation has a value zero, this flag is set otherwise it is reset.
3. Auxiliary carry (AC) – During the arithmetic operation, if a carry is transferred from D3 to D4,
this flag is set otherwise it is reset.
4. Parity (P) - If the result of an operation contains even number of 1s, this flag is set otherwise it is
reset.
5. Carry(C) - If the instruction resulted in a carry (from addition) or borrow (from either
subtraction or comparision) out of higher order bit, this flag is set otherwise it is reset.
General Purpose Registers :-
Apart from the accumulator 8085 consists of six special type of registers called General Purpose
Registers. These general purpose registers are used to hold data like any other registers. The
general purpose registers in 8085 microprocessor are B, C, D, E, H and L. Each register can hold
8-bit data. These registers can also be used to work in pairs to hold 16-bit data.
They can work in pairs such as B-C, D-E and H-L to store 16-bit data. The H-L pair works as a
memory pointer. A memory pointer holds the address of a particular memory location. They can
store 16-bit address as they work in pair.
Program Counter :- It is a 16 bit special purpose register used to store the memory address of the
next instruction to be executed next. The execution of a program is initiated by loading the PC by
the address of the first instruction of the program. Once the first instruction is executed, the PC is
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automatically incremented to point to the next instruction and this process is repeated till the end of
the program. Hence it is also called as ‘Memory Pointer’.
Stack Pointer :- It is a 16 bit special purpose register, which controls a portion of memory known
as stack and it holds the address of this stack top. This stack is used to save the content of a
register during the execution of a program.
Instruction registers (IR) :- It is an 8-bit register. It is used to hold the current instruction which
the microprocessor is about to execute. Note that this register is not accessible by the programmer.
Instruction Decoder :- It interprets the instruction stored in the instruction register. It generates
various machine cycles depending upon the instruction. The machine cycles are then given to the
Timing and Control Unit.
Incrementer/Decrementer Register :- It is a 16-bit register used to increment or decrement the
contents of PC and stack pointer. It is also not accessible by the programmer.
Timing and Control Unit :- The timing and control unit is a section of the CPU. It generates
timing and control signals which are necessary for the execution of instructions. It provides status,
control and timing signals which are required for the operation of memory and I/O devices. It
controls the entire operation of the microprocessor and peripherals connected to it. Thus it is seen
that control unit of the CPU acts as a brain of the computer.
There are two control signals:
1. RD - This is an active low control signal used for read operation.
2. WR -This is an active low control signal used for write operation.
There are three status signals used in microprocessor S0, S1 and IO/M . It changes its status
according to the provided input to these pins.
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Serial Input/Output Control :- There are two pins in this unit SID and SOD . This unit is used
for serial data communication.
Interrupt control :- There are 6 interrupt pins in this unit. Generally an external hardware is
connected to these pins. These pins provide interrupt signal sent by the external hardware to the
microprocessor and microprocessor sends acknowledgement for receiving the interrupt signal.
Generally INTA is used for acknowledgement.
Note : Registers are small memories within the CPU. They are used by the microprocessor for
temporary storage and manipulation of data and instructions. Data remain in the registers till they
are sent to the memory or I/O devices.
8085 Bus Structure :
There are three buses in 8085 Microprocessor:
1. Address Bus
2. Data Bus
3. Control Bus
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Address Bus:- Genearlly, Microprocessor has 16 bit address bus. The bus over which the CPU
sends out the address of the memory location is known as Address bus. The address bus carries the
address of memory location to be written or to be read from.
The address bus is unidirectional. It means bit flow occurs only in one direction, only from
microprocessor to peripheral devices.
We can find that how much memory it can use by the formula 2N, where N is the number of bits
used for address lines.
Here, 216 = 65536 bytes or 64KB. So we can say that it can access upto 64 KB memory.
Data Bus:-
8085 Microprocessor has 8 bit data bus. So it can be used to carry the 8 bit data starting from
00000000H (00H) to 11111111H (FFH). Here 'H' tells the Hexadecimal Number. It is
bidirectional. These lines are used for data flowing in both direction means data can be transferred
or can be received through these lines. The data bus also connects the I/O ports and CPU. The
largest number that can appear on the data bus is 11111111.
It has 8 parallel lines of data bus. So it can access upto 28 = 256 data bus lines.
Control Bus:- The control bus is used for sending control signals to the memory and I/O devices.
The CPU sends control signal on the control bus to enable the outputs of addressed memory
devices or I/O port devices.
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Some of the control bus signals are as follows:
1. Memory read
2. Memory write
3. I/O read
4. I/O write.
Pin configuration of 8085 Microprocessor and its description :
Intel 8085 is an 8-bit, N-channel Metal Oxide semiconductor (NMOS) microprocessor. It is a 40
pin IC package fabricated on a single Large Scale Integration (LSI) chip. The Intel 8085 uses a
single +5V DC supply for its operation. Its clock speed is about 3MHz. It has 80 basic instructions
and 246 opcodes. The 8085 is an enhanced version of its predecessor, the 8080A.
Pin diagram of 8085
The 8085 signals are grouped as follows:
1. Address bus
2. Address/data bus
3. Control and status signals
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4. Interrupt signals
5. DMA signals
6. Timing and synchronization signals
7. Serial I/O signals
8. Power supply
(1) Address signals: A15 – A8
These signals form the higher order address lines
(2) Address/Data signals: AD7 – AD0
This is a time multiplexed address and data bus used for carrying both
· lower order address signals
· Data signal at different time intervals
Address bus is unidirectional and data bus is bidirectional
(3) Control and Status signals:
(a) Control Signals:
* RD - This is an active low signal. This signal indicates that selected I/O or memory device is to
be read and that the data is available on the data lines.
* WR- This is also an active low signal. This signal indicates that the data on the data bus is to be
written into the selected memory or I/O location.
(b) Status Signals:
* IO/M - used to differentiate between I/O and memory operation.
1 – I/O operation 0 – Memory operation
* S1, S0 – These signals along with IO/M are used to identify various operations of the
microprocessor.
* ALE – This signal is generated during the first clock period of every machine cycle. It is used to
demultiplex the multiplexed lower order address and data bus.
(4) Interrupt Signals:
An interrupt is a request to the microprocessor to suspend the execution of the main program
temporarily and execute another program called Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) corresponding to a
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device which has requested microprocessor through any of the 5 interrupt lines. INTA is an
acknowledgement to a maskable interrupt.
(5) DMA Signals:
DMA (Direct Memory Access) is the process of transferring data from the I/O device to memory
without the interference of the microprocessor. We must keep in mind that for initiating the DMA
process microprocessor is needed.
HOLD – This signal indicates a peripheral such as DMA controller is requesting for the use of
address and data bus.
HLDA – This output signal acknowledges the HOLD request.
(6) Timing and synchronization signals:
* RESETIN - when the signal on this pin goes low, the program counter is set to 0, buses are
tristated and microprocessor is reset.
* RESET OUT – This signal indicates that the microprocessor is reset and can be used to reset
other devices.
* CLKOUT – This signal can be used as system clock for other devices.
* X1 and X2 – The crystal is connected across these pins. The frequency is internally divide by 2.
Thus, to operate a system at 3MHz, the crystal must have a frequency of 6MKz.
* READY – This input signal is used to delay the microprocessor read/write cycles until an I/O
device is ready to send/accept data.
(7) Serial I/O signals:
* SID – serial input data: The data on this line is loaded into accumulator bit – 7 whenever a RIM
instruction is executed.
* SOD – Serial output data: This line is set or reset as specified by the SIM instruction.
These two signals are used to establish serial communication between the microprocessor and
external serial I/O devices.
(8) Power supply signals:
VCC - +5V Power supply
VSS – ground reference
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Timing Diagrams:
Timing Diagram is a graphical representation. It represents the execution time taken by each
instruction in a graphical format. The execution time is represented in T-states.
Instruction Cycle:
The time required to execute an instruction.
Machine Cycle:
The time required to access the memory or input/output devices.
T-State:
• The machine cycle and instruction cycle takes multiple clock periods.
• A portion of an operation carried out in one system clock period is called as T-state.
The 8085 microprocessor contains 6 basic machine cycles. They are
1. Op-code Fetch cycle (4T or 6T)
2. Memory read cycle (3T)
3. Memory write cycle (3T)
4. I/O read cycle (3T)
5. I/O write cycle (3T)
6. Interrupt Acknowledge cycle (6T or 12T)
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Machine Cycle Status No. of Machine Cycles Control
IO/ M S1 S0
Opcode fetch 0 1 1 4 RD=0
Memory Read 0 1 0 3 RD=0
Memory Write 0 0 1 3 WR =0
I/O Read 1 1 0 3 RD=0
I/O Write 1 0 1 3 WR =0
Interrupt
Acknowledge
1 1 1 3 INTA =
0
Timing diagram for opcode fetch cycle (4T) :
The opcode fetch machine cycle is executed by the processor to fetch the opcode from the
memory. The time taken by the processor to execute the opcode fetch cycle is either 4T or 6T. In
this time the first 3 T-states are used for fetching the opcode from memory and the remaining T
states are used for internal operations by the processor.
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Timing diagram for Memory Read cycle (3T) :
The memory read machine cycle is executed by the processor to read a data byte from the memory.
The processor takes 3 T-states to execute this machine cycle.
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Timing diagram for Memory Write Cycle (3T):
The memory write machine cycle is executed by the processor to write a data byte in a memory
location. The processor takes 3 T-states to execute this machine cycle.
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Timing diagram for I/O Read Cycle (3T) :
The I/O read cycle is executed by the processor to read a data byte from the I/O port or from the
peripheral which is I/O mapped in the system. The processor takes 3 T-states to execute this
machine cycle.
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Timing diagram for I/O Write Cycle (3T) :
The I/O write cycle is executed by the processor to write a data byte in the I/O port or to a
peripheral which is I/O mapped in the system. The processor takes 3 T-states to execute this
machine cycle.
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Instruction Cycle
The time taken for the execution of an instruction is called instruction cycle (IC). An instruction
cycle (IC) consists of a fetch cycle (FC) and an execute cycle (EC). A fetch cycle is the time
required for the fetch operation in which the machine code of an instruction (op-code) is fetched
from the memory. This time is a fixed slot of time. An execute cycle is of variable width which
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depends on the instruction to be executed. The total time for the execution is given by IC = FC +
EC.
Fig (a): An instruction cycle showing FC, EC and IC
Machine Cycle
Machine cycle is defined as the time required for completing the operation of accessing either
memory or I/O device. In the 8085, the machine cycle may consist of three to six T states. The T-state
is defined as one sub division of the operation performed in one clock period. These sub
divisions are internal states synchronized with the system clock. In every machine cycle the first
operation is op-code fetch and the remaining will be read or write from memory or I/O devices.
Fetch Cycle
The first byte of an instruction is its op-code. An instruction may be more than one byte long. The
other bytes are data or operand address. The program counter (PC) keeps the memory address of
the next instruction to be executed. In the beginning of a fetch cycle the content of the program
counter, which is the address of the memory location where op-code is available, is sent to the
memory. The memory places the op-code on the data bus so as to transfer it to the microprocessor.
Execute Cycle
The op-code fetched from the memory goes to the instruction register, IR. From the instruction
register it goes to the decoder circuitry which decodes the instruction. After the instruction is
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decoded, execution begins. If the operand is in the general purpose registers, execution is
immediately performed.
The time taken for decoding and execution is one clock cycle. If an instruction contains data or
operand and address which are still in the memory, the microprocessor has to perform some read
operations to get the desired data. After receiving the data it performs execute operation. A read
cycle is similar to a fetch cycle. In case of a read cycle the quantity received from the memory are
data or operand address instead of an op-code. In some instructions write operation is performed.
In write cycle data are sent from the microprocessor to the memory or an output device. Thus, in
some cases an execute cycle may involve one or more read or write cycles or both.
Applications of Microprocessor
Microprocessors are being used for numerous applications and the list of applications is becoming
longer and longer. Some of them are given below.
►Personal Computer ► Numerical Control
►Mobile Phones ►Automobiles
►Bending Machines ►Medical Diagnostic Equipment
►Automatic voice recognizing systems ►Prosthetics
►Traffic light Control ►Entertainment Games
►Digital Signal Processing ►Communication terminals
►Process Control ►Calculators
►Sophisticated Instruments ►Telecommunication Switching Systems
►Automatic Test Systems.
♣♣♣♣
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