The document discusses the evolution of computer processors, highlighting key milestones and specifications for various Intel microprocessors from the 1971 Intel 4004 to modern Core series processors. It describes important concepts such as Moore's Law, clock rates, transistor counts, and technology features like hyper-threading and turbo-boost. The advancements in processing capabilities, architecture changes, and innovations related to performance and energy efficiency are emphasized.

2.  Usually called “Brain of Computer”.
 Carry out instructions in a computer
program.
 Perform arithmetic/logic operations along
with input/output operations.
 This term has been in use in the computer
industry at least since the early 1960s.

3.  Instruction : A sequence of bits in a specific format to instruct
the computer to perform a specific operation.
 Program : A sequence of instructions to perform a specific task
on the computer.
 Clock : It is the frequency of the crystal oscillator of the
computer. It determines how the processor is.
 Word Length :It is basically a fixed sized group of bits that are
handled as a unit by the instruction set and/or hardware of the
processor.
 Transistor Count : It is the no. of transistors fabricated in the
processor. It is a measure of complexity of the processor.

4.  Given by Gordon Moore, co-founder and former chairman
of Intel Corporation.
 It states : The number of transistors that can be placed
inexpensively on an integrated circuit doubles
approximately every two years.
 This trend has continued for more than half a century and
is expected to continue until 2015 or 2020 or later.
 The capabilities of many digital electronic devices are
strongly linked to Moore's law: processing speed, memory
capacity, sensors and even the number and size of pixels
in digital cameras.

5. Intel 4004 :
o First single-chip microprocessor.
o Introduced November 15, 1971
o Clock rate 740 kHz.
o 0.07 MIPS
o Instruction set contained 46 instructions
o Number of Transistors 2,300 at 10 µm
o Addressable Memory 640 bytes
o Bus Width 4 bits (multiplexed address/data due to
limited pins)
o Originally designed to be used in Busicom calculator

6. Intel 8008 :
o Introduced April 1, 1972.
o First 8-bit processor.
o Clock rate 800 kHz
o Instruction set contained 48 instructions
o Number of Transistors 3,500 at 10 µm
o Addressable Memory 16 KB
o Originally intended for use in Datapoint 2200
microcomputer

7. Intel 8086 :
o Introduced June 8, 1978.
o Introduction of x86 architecture.
o Clock rate 4.77 - 10 MHz
o 16-bit data bus, 20-bit address bus
o Number of Transistors 29,000 at 3 µm
o Addressable Memory 1 MB.
o Used in portable computing, and in the IBM PS/2
computers

8. Intel 8088 :
o Introduced June 1, 1979.
o Backward compatible 8086.
o Internal architecture 16-bit.
o External architecture 8-bit.
o Address bus 20-bit.
o Highly successful due to pivotal sale of IBM-PC.

9. Intel 80386 :
o Introduced October 17, 1985.
o Clock rates : 16 – 33 MHz.
o 32-bit data & address bus
o Addressable Memory 4GB
o Virtual Memory 64 TB
o No. of transistors : 275,000 at1 µm
o Backward compatible with x86 (16-bit)
o Used in Desktop Computing

10. Intel Pentium :
o Introduced March 22,1993.
o Clock rates : 60 - 66 MHz.
o 64-bit data bus
o 32-bit address bus
o Addressable Memory 4GB
o Virtual Memory 64 TB
o No. of transistors : 3.1 million at 0.8 µm
o Superscalar Architecture
o 273 pin PGA package
o 16 KB L1 cache

11. Pentium MMX:
o Introduced January 8, 1997.
o Clock rates : 66 MHz.
o 32 KB L1 cache
o 296/321 pin PGA.
o No. of transistors : 4.5 million at 0.35 µm
o Intel MMX (SIMD Instruction set) support

12. Pentium Pro (1995):
Pentium II (1997):
Pentium III (1999):
o Introduction of L2 cache (512 KB).
o Clock rates : upto 600 MHz.
o Introduction of Internet Streaming SIMD
Instruction
o No. of transistors : 9.5 million at 0.25 µm

13. Pentium IV (2000 - 2008):
o Clock rate : upto 3.8 GHz
o L2 cache increased upto 512 KB
o Introduction of SSE2 SIMD Extension
o No. of transistors : 42 million at 0.18 µm
o In 2004, the 32-bit x86 architecture was extended
to 64-bit x86-64 set
o Used greatly in the desktop & laptop computers.

14. Two Line of Processors:
The Core 2 series:
• Core 2 Duo
• Core 2 Quad
• Core 2 Extreme
The Core i Series:
• Core i3
• Core i5
• Core i7
• Core i7 Extreme

15. Features:
o Pure 64-bit architecture
o Introduction of SSSE3 SIMD Instructions
o Multiple cores on single die.
o Large L2 cache (2 – 12 MB)
o Use of LGA packaging
o Fabrication process in nm (65/45/32 nm)
o Introduction of L3 cache (core i series)
o Technologies such as hyper-threading, turbo-
boost,etc.

16. Hyper-Threading:
It is a technology used to improve parallelization of
computations performed on PC microprocessors. For each
processor core that is physically present, the operating
system addresses two virtual processors. In short, one core
handles 2 threads at once.
Turbo-Boost:
It is a technology in latest Intel processors to dynamically
increase the performance of the processor at the need of
the user. Otherwise it saves energy/power by operating at a
lower frequency.

17. The clock rates have increased upto 3.8 GHz.
The Fabrication Process has reduced upto
32nm, thus saving power and space.
L3 caches have been introduced, as large as 12
MB.
The no. of cores on a single die has reached
upto 6.
Even the memory controllers have been
integrated into the processor die itself.