This document discusses three topics: 1. Domains of Information Processing - It discusses the three main components of the information processing model: sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory. 2. Cognitive Development Learning - It discusses Piaget's stages of cognitive development and Vygotsky's views on social construction of knowledge and scaffolding. 3. The Models Approach for Teaching - It discusses teaching models as prescriptive teaching strategies to accomplish instructional goals and how teachers can use student data to engage understanding and improve instruction.

1. 1

2. 2
GROUP 1
* Amal bt Mohamad Hassan
* 818776
* Domains of Information Processing
* Cognitive Development Learning
* Siti Zahidah bt Salleh
* 818236
* The Models Approach for Teaching: Teaching
Skills and The Organization of Data
* Essentials Teaching Skills
*Yogambigai a/p R.Rajentran
* 818292
*Teaching for Thinking & Understanding
* Higher Order & Critical Thinking

3. `QBasically, this topic is about the study of how
humans learn and holistically the study of the mind.
This is because how one learns, acquires new
information, and retains previous information guides
selection of long-term learning
objectives and methods of
effective instruction.
It is also the study of how
people encode, structure, store,
retrieve, use or otherwise learn
knowledge.

4. DOMAINS OF INFORMATION
PROCESSING

5.  Humans process information with amazing efficiency and
often perform better than highly sophisticated machines at
tasks such as problem solving and critical thinking.
 Yet despite the remarkable capabilities of the human mind, it
was not until the 20th century that researchers developed
systematic models of memory, cognition, and thinking.
 The best articulated and most heavily researched model is
the information processing model (IPM), developed in the
early 1950s.
 The IPM consists of three main components, sensory
memory, working memory, and long-term memory.

6. SENSORY
MEMORY
SHORT – TERM
MEMORY
(WORKING
MEMORY)
LONG – TERM
MEMORY
RESPONSE
Forgotten
Repetition
Elaboration
and
CodingRetrieval
Initial
Processing
Forgotten
External
Stimulus
Information processing model
by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968).

7. Processes incoming sensory information for very brief periods
of time, usually on the order of 1/2 to 3 seconds.
The amount of information held at any given moment is limited
to five to seven discrete elements such as letters of the alphabet
or pictures of human faces.
Thus, if a person viewed 10 letters simultaneously for 1 second,
it is unlikely that more than five to seven of those letters would
be remembered.
The main purpose is to screen incoming stimuli and process
only those stimuli that are most relevant at the present time.
Occurs too quickly for people to consciously control what they
attend to.

8. After stimuli enter sensory memory, they are either forwarded
to working memory or deleted from the system.
Often viewed as active or conscious memory because it is the
part of memory that is being actively processed while new
information is being taken in.
Very limited capacity and unrehearsed information will begin
to be lost from it within 15-30 seconds if other action is not
taken.
Information is assigned meaning, linked to other information,
and essential mental operations such as inferences are
performed.

9. Not constrained by capacity or duration of attention
limitations.
Provide a seemingly unlimited repository for all the facts and
knowledge in memory.
Different types of information exist here and that information
must be organized, and therefore quickly accessible, to be of
practical use to learners.
Ability of a person to quickly encode and retrieve information
using an efficient organizational system.

10. TYPE OF
MEMORY
PURPOSE CAPACITY DURATION OF
RETENTION
SENSORY
MEMORY
• Provides initial screening and
processing of incoming stimuli.
3 – 7
discrete
units
0.5 to 3
seconds
SHORT-TERM
MEMORY
• Assigns meaning to stimuli and links
individual pieces of information into
larger units.
• Enables learner to construct
meaning and perform visual-spatial
mental operations.
7 – 9 units
of
information
5 to 15
seconds
without
rehearsal
LONG-TERM
MEMORY
• Provides a permanent repository for
different types of knowledge.
Infinite Permanent
Comparison of sensory, short-term and long-term memory.

11.  Students become automated at basic skills such as letter and word
decoding, number recognition, and simple procedural skills such as
handwriting, multiplication, and spelling.
 Help students to use their prior knowledge when learning new
information by facilitating encoding and retrieval processes.
 Increases cognitive efficiency by reducing information processing
demands.
 Learning strategies improve information processing because
learners are more efficient and process information at a deeper
level.
IMPLICATIONSFOR
INSTRUCTION

12. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
LEARNING

13.  Cognitive abilities allow us to process the sensory information we collect:
ability to analyze, evaluate, retain information, recall experiences, make
comparisons, and determine action.
 If development does not occur naturally, cognitive weaknesses are the
result where it diminish an individual’s capacity to learn and are difficult
to correct without specific and appropriate intervention.
 Can be practiced and improved with the right training.
 Changes in cognitive ability can be seen dramatically in cases where an
injury affects a certain physical area of the brain. The correct therapy can
actually “rewire” a patient’s brain, and cognitive function can be restored
or enhanced.
 Studied most frequently in infants, children, and adolescents, where
changes often are relatively rapid and striking.

14. Three Basic Components of Piaget's Cognitive Theory
 Piaget (1952) defined a schema as 'a cohesive, repeatable action
sequence possessing component actions that are tightly
interconnected and governed by a core meaning'.
 The basic building block of intelligent behavior : a way of
organizing knowledge.
 A set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use
both to understand and to respond to situations.
 The development of a person's mental processes increases in the
number and complexity of the schemata that a person had learned.

16.  Jean Piaget (1952) viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation
(adjustment) to the world which happen through assimilation,
accomodation and equilibration.
 Assimilation is a process using an existing schema to deal with a new
object or situation.
 Accomodation happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not
work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.
 Equilibration is the force which moves development along.
 Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady
rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. It occurs when a child's schemas can
deal with most new information through assimilation. However, an
unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot
be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation). Yet, it will seek to restore
balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation).

18. Stage Characterised by
Sensori-motor
(Birth-2 yrs)
• Differentiates self from objects
• Recognises self as agent of action and begins to act intentionally: e.g.
pulls a string to set mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make a
noise
Pre-operational
(2-7 years)
• Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words
• Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others
• Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red
blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of colour
Concrete
operational
(7-11 years)
• Can think logically about objects and events
• Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight
(age 9)
• Classifies objects according to several features and can order them in
series along a single dimension such as size.
Formal operational
(11 years and up)
• Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses
systemtically
• Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological
problems
3) Stages of Cognitive Development by Jean Piaget

20. View of Lev Vygotsky
 Emphasizes the social construction of knowledge.
 Argues that what children have to learn is shaped by the culture in which
they live, and that the way they learn is through interaction with older
children or adults who are more experienced in that culture.
 Pays particular attention to language because it is such a fundamental part of
human interactions.
 Scaffolding is an important concept in Vygotsky's theory: refers to the
process by which the adult (or older child) supports the child in a task,
offering suggestions or filling in bits of missing information, until the child
can accomplish the task alone.
 Another concept is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which refers
to anything a child cannot yet do independently, but can do with help, in
other words, the cutting edge of the child's current cognitive development.
Tasks within the zone of proximal development are those that are
challenging without being either too easy or too hard for children.

21. Student
can
Student
can’t
Zone of
proximal
development
Learning development

22.  Discovery learning: the idea that children learn best through doing and
actively exploring was seen as central to the transformation of the
primary school curriculum.
 Therefore, teachers should encourage the following within the
classroom:
 Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it.
 Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing
"truths".
 Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can
learn from each other).
 Devising situations that present useful problems, and create
disequilibrium in the child.
 Evaluate the level of the child's development, so suitable tasks can
be set.
IMPLICATIONSFOR
INSTRUCTION

23. The Model Approach to Teaching: Teaching Skills and
The Organization of Data

24. • Teaching models are prescriptive
teaching strategies design to accomplish
particular instructional goals.
• The are prescriptive in teachers
responsibility during planning,
implementation, and assessment stages of
instruction.

25. • Teachers use student data to engage student
understanding and detect the target area in need
of improvement and in the same time increase
the effectiveness of teachers.
• Teacher can collect student data by quiz,
diagnostic test, students behavior, and else.
• Teacher also should collect data at the beginning
and end of each unit to enable teacher knows
how much student learned.
• Teacher can identify which activities support a
certain learning style.

26. Essential Teaching
Skills
• Analogous to basic
skills and can be
described as the
critical teacher
attitudes, skills, and
strategies necessary
to promote student
learning.

27. Essential
teachingskills
Teacher
characteristics
Teaching efficacy
Modeling and enthusiasm
Caring
Positive expectation
Communication
Precise terminology
Connected discourse
Transition signals
Emphasis
Organization
Instructional alignment
Focus
Feedback
Monitoring
Review and closure
Questioning

28. Teacher Characteristics
• Teacher set the
emotional tone
for the
classroom,
design
instruction,
implement
learning activity,
assess student
progress
Teaching
efficacy
Modeling
&
enthusiasm
Caring
Positive
expectation

29. A. Teaching efficacy
• Belief that teacher can have an important
positive effect on students (Brunning et
al.,1999).
• Increase student performance by accepting
students and their idea, rather than criticism.
• More flexible, adopt new curriculum
materials, and changing strategies more
readily.(Poole et al.., 1989)

30. B. Modelling and enthusiasm
• Modeling occur when people imitate the behavior they
observe. (bandura 1986).
• Teachers attitudes and belief about teaching and learning
are communicated through their behavior.
• Teachers model enthusiasm: they communicate their own
interest in the topics they teach through the behaviors
they display. This will increase learners’ belief in the
importance of effort and in their own capabilities.
• This to induced in student the feeling that the information
is valuable and worth learning, not just to amuse them.

31. C. Teacher caring
• Teacher abilities to
empathize with and
invest in the protection
and development of
young people
(Chaskin & Rauner,
1995).
• They understands
student feeling.
D. Positive Teacher
expectation
• Inferences that teacher
make about the future
behavior, academic
achievement, or attitude
of their students (Good &
Brophy, 1997).
• Teacher believe student
can and will learn

32. Characteristics of Differential Teacher Expectations
Characteristics
Emotional support
Teacher support and demands
Questioning
Feedback and evaluation
Teacher behavior favoring perceived high achiever
More interaction, more positive interaction,
more eye contact and smiles, stand closer,
more direct orientation to student.
Clearer and more through explanation, more
enthusiastic instruction, require more
complete and accurate answers.
Call on more often, allow more time to
answer, prompt more.
More praise, less critic, provide more
complete and lengthier feedback, more
conceptual evaluation.

33. Communication
Precise
terminology
• Teachers define idea clearly and eliminate vague terms from presentation.
• Answers students questions.
Connected
discourse
• Teachers lesson is thematic leads to a point.
Transition
signals
• Verbal statement that communicates that one idea is ending and another is
beginning.
• Focus on students attention
Emphasis
• Alerts student to important information in a lesson.
• Occur through vocal and verbal behavior or repetition (Eggen &
Kauchak,1999)

34. Organization
• Intuitively sensible.
Starting on time
Materials prepared
in advanced
Established
routines
Characteristics of effective
Organization

35. Instructional alignment
• Match between objective and learning
activities.

36. Focus
• Process teacher use to
attract and maintain
attention throughout the
lesson.
Introductoryfocus
sets of teacher
action designed
to attract student
attention and
provide umbrella
for the rest of the
lesson. Sensoryfocus
use of stimuli –
concrete objects,
pictures, models,
materials
displayed on the
overhead, and
even information
written on the
chalkboard.

37. Feedback
Characteristic
of effective
feedback
Immediate
Specific
Provides
information
Depends on
performance
Has a positive
emotional tone
• Information
about current
behavior that can
be used to
improve future
performance.
(Eggen &
Kauchak, 1999).

38. Monitoring
• Process of checking students verbal and non verbal
behavior for evidence of learning progress (flexible
and responsive to student).

39. Review and closure
• Review: summarizes previous work and forms a link
between what has been learned and what is coming.
• Closure: form of review that occurs at the end of
learning.

40. Question
• Help learners understand the topics they study.
• Leaners see connection between the ideas they
studied with the reality example.
• Skills at questioning:
– Remembering the goals of lessons
– Monitoring students verbal and non verbal behavior
– Maintaining the flow and development of the lesson
– Preparing the next question

41. Characteristics of Effective Questioning
• Teacher question or
directive that elicits a
student response after the
student has failed to answer
@ give incorrect or
incomplete answers.
• Think
time.
• Questioning pattern
in which all student in
the class are called on
as equally as possible.
• No. of
questions
teacher asked
Frequency
Equitable
distribution
PromptingWait-time

42. Creating productive learning environments
Management and discipline is the role of effective instruction.
1. Organization and classroom order
 Well-established routines that made the environment
predictable.
2. Classroom order and student involvement.
 Students spends as much as their time focused on learning.
3. Involvement, order, and increase student motivation.
 Teacher use classroom organization & management
skills that successfully establish the classroom as
effective learning environment.

43. 43
TEACHING FOR THINKING &
UNDERSTANDING

44. 44
TEACHING FOR THINKING
Teaching for thinking requires a passionate disposition
toward thinking and the explicit and reflective use of
thinking skills to form reasoned judgements.
Educators must demonstrate thinking in multiple contexts
including those that are rich in subject matter content and
problem-complexity.
The more a teacher is able to extend participants’
thinking into new domains of learning and inquiry, the
stronger students’ thinking will become.
It is a matter of active engagement, thoughtful reflection
and reasonable reformulations of judgements.

45. 45
TEACHING FOR
UNDERSTANDING
•Focuses instruction on building
disciplinary understanding, rather than
imparting superficial knowledge.
•Four elements are fundamental to this
approach:
1) Generative topics,
2) Understanding goals,
3) Performances of
understanding,
4) Ongoing assessment.

46. 46
 For teachers, attention to each of these aspects of instruction
helps ensure that they will be focusing their time and energy
on helping students to learn about those concepts, ideas, and
skills that are most important to understand.
 For the students, this approach to teaching and learning
enables them to apply their knowledge and skills flexibly in a
variety of situations.

47. 47
 If a student "understands" a topic, she/he not only reproduce
knowledge, but also use it in unscripted ways.
 These are called "performances of understanding" because
they give students the opportunity to demonstrate that they
understand information, can expand upon it, and apply it in
new ways.
EXAMPLE
For example, a student in a history class might be able to
describe the gist of the Declaration of Independence in her
own words; role-play Tunku Abdul Rahman as he reacts to
different parts of it; or write out parts of an imagined debate
among the authors as they hammer out the statement.

48. 48
HIGHER ORDER AND
CRITICAL THINKING

49. 49
HIGHER ORDER THINKING
1) Appropriate teaching
strategies and learning
environments that facilitate
growth in student thinking
skills in area of critical,
logical, reflective, meta-
cognitive, and creative
thinking.
2) Higher-Order Thinking
essentially means thinking
that takes place in the
higher level of hierarchy in
the cognitive processing.

50. 50
HIGHER ORDER THINKING
3) Higher order
thinking(H.O.T.)
skills include Critical
Thinking skills which
are logical, reflective,
meta-cognitive and
creative.
4) HOTS for Analyzing
Literary Texts:
Inferring
Problem solving
Classifying
Generating possibilities
Comparing
Synthesizing contrasting
Making connections
Explaining patterns
Evaluating

51. 51
HIGHER ORDER THINKING
5) Applications of the skills
result in Reasoning,
Evaluating, Problem solving,
Decisions making &
Analyzing products that are
valid within the context of
available knowledge and
experience that promote
continued growth in these and
other intellectual skills.
6) Teacher or School
Leader should aware of the
importance of teaching
higher-order thinking
(H.O.T.) skills to prepare
young men and women to
live in the 21st Century.

52. 52
BENEFITS OF HIGHER
ORDER THINKING
 Encouraging students to
think more deeply and
critically
 Problem
solving
 Encouraging
discussions
 Stimulating students
to seek information
on their own

53. 53
HIGHER ORDER QUESTIONS
ENCOURAGES HIGHER ORDER
THINKING BASED ON BLOOM’S
TAXONOMY.

54. 54
1) An ability to present, evaluate,
and interpret data, to develop
lines of argument and make sound
judgements.
2) “ Critical thinking consists of a mental process of
analyzing or evaluating information, particularly
statements or propositions that people have offered as
true.
It forms a process of reflecting upon the meaning of
statements, examining the offered evidence and
reasoning, and forming judgments about the facts.”
-Wikipedia
CRITICAL THINKING

55. 55
3) “ Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined
process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing,
applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating
information gathered from, or generated by, observation,
experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a
guide to belief and action.”
- Michael Scriven & Richard Paul, (2003)
4) Critical Thinking is the general term given to a wide range of
cognitive and intellectual skills needed to:
* Effectively identify, analyze, and evaluate arguments.
* Discover and overcome personal prejudices and biases.
* Formulate and present convincing reasons in support of
conclusions.
* Make reasonable, intelligent decisions about what to believe
and what to do.
CRITICAL THINKING

56. 56
BENEFITS OF CRITICAL THINKING
1) Academic Performance
a) Understand the arguments and beliefs of others.
b) Critically evaluating those arguments and beliefs.
c) Develop and defend one's own well-supported arguments and
beliefs.
2) Workplace
a) Helps us to reflect and get a deeper understanding of our own
and others’ decisions.
b) Open-mindedness to change.
c) Aid us in being more analytical in solving problems.
3) Daily life
a) Helps us to avoid making foolish personal decisions.
b) Promotes capable of making good decisions on important
social, political and economic issues.
c) Aids in the development of autonomous thinkers capable of
examining their assumptions and prejudices.

57. Egocentrism
Sociocentrism
Unwarranted
Assumptions
Wishful
Thinking
Relativistic
Thinking
• Self-centered thinking
- self-interested thinking
- self-serving bias
• Group-centered thinking
- Group bias
• Beliefs that are presumed to be true without
adequate evidence or justification
- Assumption
- Stereotyping
• Believing that something is true because one
wishes it were true.
• The truth is “just a matter of opinion”
* Relativism
- Subjectivism
- Cultural relativism
BARRIERS TO CRITICAL THINKING

58. BARRIERS IN THE SCHOOL
CONTENT
 1. Crowded
Curriculum
- cover content plus
critically think about it
 2. Short Class Periods
- engaged activities
require time on task
 3. Too Many Students
- difficult to get everyone
involved every time

59. DO WE USE CRITICAL
THINKING IN OUR
DAILY LIFE???
Price
Economy
Reliability
Style
Speed

60. CONCLUSION
 The information processing approach is challenged by connectionist and
dynamic systems theories that do not share the assumptions about symbolic
representations and discrete processes.
 The extent to which information processing succeeds will depend, in part, on
the extent to which its practitioners can adapt to accommodate these
challenges and contribute to research that enriches educational assessment
and instruction.
 Teaching skills play important role in order to stimulate the students’ thinking
skills and understanding which eventually will lead to higher order and
critical thinking.
 In fact, nowadays situation forces students to think more deeply and
critically due the challenges of 21st century era where people are striving for
a succeed life.

61. REFERENCES
Alyssa Mattero. (2014). How your school and teachers can effectively utilize student
data. Retrieved 23rd September, 2015 from https://www.teachermatch.org/blog/how-
your-school-and-teachers-can-effectively-utilize- student-data/
Brookhart, S. (2010). How to Assess Higher Order Thinking Skills in Your Classroom,
ASCD. Retrieved 23rd September, 2015 from
http://www.ascd.org/Publications/Books/Overview/How-to-Assess-Higher-Order-
Thinking-Skills-in-Your-Classroom.aspx
Lutz, S., & Huitt, W. (2003). Information processing and memory: Theory and
applications. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State
University.
Paul D. Eggen & Donald P. Kauchak. (2001). Strategies for Teachers: Teaching
Content and Thinking Skills (4th Ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

62. REFERENCES
P.F. Hearron & V. Hildebrand. (2009). Guiding Young Children. New York City:
Pearson Education.
_______. Retrieved September 22, 2015 from
http://www.insightassessment.com/BLOG/What-is-the-Secret-to-Teaching-for-
Thinking
______. Retrieved September 22, 2015 from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_thinking
______. Retrieved September 22, 2015 from
http://louisville.edu/ideastoaction/about/criticalthinking/what
_______. Retrieved September 22, 2015 from
http://www.slideshare.net/majidsafadaran/2-ppt-lots-hots
_______. Retrieved September 23, 2015 from
http://www.slideshare.net/diegocampillo/higher-order-thinkingskills

63. _______. Retrieved September 24, 2015 from
http://eprints.qut.edu.au/16201/1/Philip_Nesbitt-Hawes_Thesis.pdf
_______. Retrieved September 24, 2015 from
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