Psychological Foundations of Education (Complete)

Table of Contents
Educational Psychology .................................................................................................... 3
Key Concepts .................................................................................................................. 3
Cognitive and Learning Development ............................................................................ 3
Cognitive Development .................................................................................................. 3
Theories of Cognitive Development ............................................................................... 3
Piaget’s Main Tenet .................................................................................................... 3
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development ................................. 7
Information-Processing Theory ................................................................................ 10
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence ............................................................... 13
Language Development ................................................................................................ 15
Learning Theories and Implications ............................................................................. 16
Theories of Learning ..................................................................................................... 16
Laws of Learning .......................................................................................................... 17
Behavioral Psychology and Learning ........................................................................... 18
Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning ................................................................ 18
Basic Concepts of Social Cognitive Learning Theory .............................................. 18
Four Learning Mechanisms in Observational Learning ........................................... 19
Watson’s Classical Conditioning .................................................................................. 19
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning ................................................................................... 19
Effective Teaching and Evaluation of Learning .......................................................... 20
Psychological Foundations of Education 1

Effective Teaching ........................................................................................................ 20
Foundations of Bilingualism .......................................................................................... 22
Bilingual Language Development ................................................................................ 22
Developing Bilingualism .............................................................................................. 22
Two Major Patterns in Bilingual Language Acquisition .............................................. 23
Bibliography .................................................................................................................... 25

Educational Psychology
Key Concepts
Educational psychology deals in learning and teaching. This branch of
psychology involves not just the learning process of early childhood and adolescence, but
includes the social, emotional and cognitive processes that are involved in learning
throughout the entire lifespan. The field of educational psychology incorporates a number
of other disciplines, including developmental psychology, behavioral psychology and
cognitive psychology.
It concerned primarily with understanding the processes of teaching and learning
that take place within formal environments and developing ways of improving those
methods. It covers important topics like learning theories; teaching methods; motivation;
cognitive, emotional, and moral development; and parent-child relationships etc.
Cognitive and Learning Development
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development is gradual, systematic changes by which mental process
become more complex and refined. Establishment of new schemes is essential in
cognitive development.
Theories of Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Main Tenet
Jean Piaget viewed children as constructivists, meaning they are active seekers
who respond to the environment according to their understanding of its essential features.
He also believed that intelligence was not random but it was a set of organized cognitive

structures that the child actively constructed, and viewed intelligence as basic life
function that helps the child to adapt to his environment.
According to Piaget, human beings inherit two essential intellectual functions
which he called organization and adaptation.
1. Organization is inborn and automatic, and it refers to the child’s tendency to
arrange available schemata into coherent systems or body of knowledge.
Children are constantly rearranging their existing knowledge to produce new
and more complex cognitive structures (Gines, et al., 1998).
2. Adaptation is the child’s tendency to adjust to the demands of the
environment. This occurs in two ways:
a. Assimilation is interpreting or understanding environment events in terms
of one’s existing cognitive structures and ways of thinking.
b. Accommodation is changing one’s existing cognitive structures and ways
of thinking to apprehend environment events.
Stages of Cognitive Development
Piaget divided cognitive development into four stages: sensorimotor,
preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. He outlined this theory that
follows an increasingly adaptive behavior mechanism from diffused to generalized
responses of the patterns of behavior. He said that all children pass through these stages
in this order and that no child can skip a stage. However, different children may pass
through the stages at somewhat different rates.

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years).
During this stage, children acquire knowledge through sensory
experiences and performing actions accordingly. This is entirely unconscious,
self-unaware, and non-symbolic cognition. There are six divisions of this stage:
a. Reflexes (0 to 1 month). These refer to the behavioral foundation upon which
more complex behaviors are based. They develop when applied to a wider
variety of stimuli and events e.g. sucking and modify with continuous
experience.
b. Schemes (1 to 4 months). These refer to an organized pattern of behavior
which the child interacts and comes to know his world e.g. sucking and
grasping. This substage coordinates and integrates previously independent
schemes such as visual and auditory. Moreover, schemes are directed inward
e.g. grasp for the sake of its grasping than on the effect it has on the world.
c. Procedure (4 to 8 months). The schemes are directed outward and develop
into procedures of interesting behaviors that produce interesting effects in the
world. Procedure gets repeated e.g. banging on a pot with a wooden spoon.
d. Intentional Behavior (8-12 months). Prior to this substage, child produces
some outcome from his behavior and repeats it. Now, the child wants to
produce a particular result then figures out the action.
e. Experimentation (12-18 months). Experimentation is the child’s trial-and-error
exploration of the world to discover new and different ways of acting on
it. Here the child produces new actions and observes the effects e.g. pulling
the rug to get an out-of-reach object.

f. Representation (18-24 months). Before this substage, all actions and results
occur externally. In this substage, the child begins to think about and acting on
the world internally e.g. naming an object that is not currently present but is
just thought of. Besides, the child witnesses an action but does not reproduce
it and he reproduces the witnessed action at a later time. This is called
deferred imitation.
2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 6 years).
During this stage, children develop their capacity to employ symbol,
particularly language. Because of symbols, they are no longer limited to the
stimuli that are immediately present and they use these symbols to portray the
external world internally e.g. child can talk about the ball and can form a mental
image of it. In stage, children also develop their ability to conserve the qualitative
and quantitative identify of objects even when they change perceptually.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (6-12 years).
Children are more logical and able to complete task not able to perform in
preoperational period. Thinking is still with real or concrete objects and actions,
and not yet abstract thinking.
This is the beginning of rational activity in children. They come to master
various logical operations including arithmetic, class and set relationships,
measurement, and conceptions of hierarchical structures (Gines, et al., 1998).
Child mastered by age 6 the Conservation of Number and he mastered by age 8 or
9 the Conservation of Length and Weight.

4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years and over)
Children develop their abstract thinking. It is their ability to think logically
about things that are only possible and not necessarily real or concrete. They also
develop their hypothetical-deductive reasoning.
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Lev S. Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes that social interaction plays a vital role in
cognitive development. His theory basically means that development depends on
interaction with people and the tools that the culture provides to help form their own view
of the world (Gallagher , 1999).
These cultural tools can be transmitted to three ways. These are:
1. Imitative Learning- a person tries to imitate or copy another person.
2. Instructed Learning- a person remembers the instructions of the teacher and then
uses them to self-regulate.
3. Collaborative Learning- a group of person who strive to understand each other
and they work together to learn a specific skills.
He believed that children are born with elementary mental abilities such as
perception, attention and memory. These innate abilities transforms into higher mental
functions as children interact with their culture and society (Meece, 2002).
His theory also states that language plays a vital role in cognitive development.
Within his theory, he identified three stages in children’s use of language:
1. Social speech- speech used by children for purpose of communication to other
people.

2. Egocentric speech- speech that is more intellectual and children use this by
verbalizing their ideas.
3. Inner speech- speech used by children to think in their minds about their problem
or task, instead of verbalizing their ideas in order to solve their problem or to
decide what to do next.
His Socio-Cultural Theory also refers to the difference between what a learner can
do independently and what can be done with other’s guidance. He called this as Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD). He assumed that interactions with adults or peers in the
zone of proximal development help children move to higher levels of mental functioning
within the classroom (Meece, 2002).
The implications of Vygotsky’s theory to education are to encourage cooperative
learning exercises and to engage student in the discovery process with guidance from
knowledgeable source. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises
where less competent children develop with the aid from more adept peers within the
zone of proximal development. He believed that when a student is at the ZPD for a
particular task, providing the appropriate assistance, will give the student enough of a
“boost” to achieve his goal or to complete the task (McLeod, 2012).
ZPD is associated with scaffolding. The concept of scaffolding was introduced by
Wood and Middleton. It is defined as a learner to concentrate on those elements of the
task that are initially beyond his capacity and complete only those elements that are
within his range of competence. According to Wood and Middleton, scaffolding becomes
most effective when the assistance is correlated to the needs of the learner (McLeod,
2012).

Meece has provided some of the major contributions of Vygotsky’s theories to
education. His theory gives insight to role of private speech and peer interactions in
cognitive development and explains the significance of guided participation and
scaffolding (Meece, 2002).
Furthermore, he also emphasized in his theory that three factors that shape
children’s behavior, and these are called ecological contexts.
1. Cultural Contexts- He said that one’s culture comprises the environment that
humans have created and continue to perpetuate in their caregiving practice.
Culture consists of human designs for living, which are embodied in beliefs,
values, customs, and activities.
2. Social Contexts- He believed that learning occurs through interpersonal, social
context. Thinking, as he defined, is a process of social interaction between
children and more experienced and knowledgeable members of community.
This social interaction helps them to master culture-specific skills and develop
their behaviors that will enable them to successfully adapt to their particular
community.
3. Historical contexts- His viewpoint, the child’s environment which he is reared
and his own developmental history in terms of his experiences in that society
are both significant in identifying the ways in which the child will think.
Conceptual thinking must be transmitted to children through words, thus
language becomes a crucial cognitive tool for deciding how children learn to
think (Owens, 2006).

Information-Processing Theory
Exponents of this theory perceive that we are a processor of information. It means
that we are not merely responding to stimuli rather we process the information we
receive. They equate our mind to a computer, which receives information and follows a
certain program to produce an output.
Structure of the Information-Processing System
The standard information-process model has three major components: sensory
memory, working memory or short-term memory, and long-term memory (Wikipedia,
2013).
1. Sensory Memory
Environment is the source of variety of stimuli. In psychology, stimulus is
an energy pattern which is recorded by our senses such light, sound, heat, cold,
etc. Human body has special sensory receptor cells that transduce external
stimulus to electrical energy so the brain can understand. This process of
transduction creates memory.
Each sensory system has its own sensory register which receives and
temporary stores all of the stimuli. The sensory register stores sensory information
for a while, then analyzes it to identify whether the sensory input should be
conveyed into working or short-term memory or should be forgotten. (See
diagram 1)
It is absolutely critical that the individual attend to the information at this
first stage in order to transmit it to the second stage. Transmission of sensory

information to working memory can be done if the stimulus has a stimulating
effect to the individual or the stimulus activates a known pattern.
2. Working Memory or Short-Term Memory
It is believed to be the center of conscious thought, compare to a computer
it is the Central Processing Unit (CPU) or using the concept of Sigmund Freud it
is the conscious memory. As individual pays attention to an external stimulus or
internal thought, working memory is created. Processing of information may take
around 15 to 20 seconds unless it is repeated or rehearsed at which point it may
take up to 20 minutes.
Working memory has subsystems that store and process verbal
information and visual images. It also supervises the coordination of subsystems
that includes awareness of the follow of information into and out of the memory
and visual representation of the possible moves, all stored for a limited amount of
time.
The short-term has a limited capacity, which can be readily demonstrated
by simple expedient of trying to remember a list of random items without
allowing repetition. In the experiments conducted by George Miller in 1956, he
gave the number 7 + 2, which he described as the “magical number” or sometimes
referred to as Miller’s Law however latest study proposes the number may be
more like 5 + 2 for most things we are trying to recall. The number of objects an
average human can hold in working memory, also called memory span, varies in
how much individuals can work with (Mastin, 2010).

One of technique for retaining and retrieving information in short-term
memory, and it also the method used to get information into long-term memory is
chunking. Chunking of information helps to the capacity of short-term memory. It
is the organization of pieces of information into shorter meaningful units to make
it more manageable. For example, it is easier to recall 0917-571-4380 rather than
09175714380.
3. Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory is responsible of storing information over a long
period of time. It encodes information for storage semantically- based on meaning
and association. However, some studies suggest that it also encodes to some
extend by acoustic. For example, when we are trying to recall a word, we try to
associate by a certain sound. Short-term memory can be become long-term
memory through the process of organization involving repetition and meaningful
association (Mastin, 2010).
There are two major memory strategies:
1. Rehearsal- A memory strategy that involves repeating the words or
information to be remembered or recalled either verbally or mentally.
2. Retrieval- A memory strategy that gets information out of the long-tern
memory.
Two common forms of retrieving the information: recognition and
recall. Recognition is a form of retrieval that involves noticing whether
a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced, and

recall is a form of retrieval that involves remembering or recalling a
stimulus that is not present (Owens, 2006).
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence
Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences suggests that intelligence is not
a single intellectual capacity but it has eight different capacities.
1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence
It is well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms
and meanings of words. Roles: teachers, editors, journalists, radio broadcasters
2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
It is the ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to detect
logical or numerical patterns. Roles: engineers, programmers, scientists
3. Spatial-Visual Intelligence
It is the ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and
abstractly, to do changes on those perceptions, and to re-create aspects of visual
experiences in the absence of pertinent stimuli. Roles: sculptors, photographers,
architects
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
It is the ability to control one’s body movements and the ability to handle
objects skillfully. Roles: athletes, dancers, nurses, geologists
5. Musical Intelligence
It is the ability to produce and appreciate pitch, rhythm, melody, and
aesthetic sounding tones and the ability to understand the forms of musical
expressiveness. Roles: singers, DJs, violists, song composers

6. Interpersonal Intelligence
It is the capacity to discern and respond appropriately to the moods,
temperaments, motivations and desires of others. Roles: psychologists, politicians,
therapists, salesmen
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence
It is the capacity to be self-aware and in-tune with inner feelings and to
use these feelings to guide one’s own behavior, and knowledge of one’s own
strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligences. Roles: person who is self-aware
and involved in the process of changing personal thoughts, beliefs, and behavior
in relation to their situation.
8. Naturalist Intelligence
It is the ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other
objects in nature or appreciate the world and nature. Roles: zoologists, botanists
Achievement Motivation and Intellectual Performance
Achievement motivation is a person’s tendency to strive for successful
performance, to assess one’s performance against specific standards of excellent and to
experience pleasure as a result of having performed successfully.
The achievement motivation is premised on the fact that a person needs to
experience a certain degree of achievement essential for him in school, sports,
occupation, and business for self-esteem and social approval. A person with high
achievement motivation tends to choose challenging activities (Zulueta & Malaya, 2012).

Language Development
There is no definite sequence on how a child can acquire language. But since the
birth of child psychology many had developed theories or did researches that led to some
relevant information on how we as children acquire language. As the studies were
compiled and revised, it eventually formed a framework basis for the study of Language
Development.
Some learning theorists believed that language is acquired by imitation. It is an
advanced behavior whereby an individual observes and replicates another's behavior. It is
also a form of social learning that leads to the development of traditions and ultimately
our culture (Wikipedia, 2013) .
Noam Chomsky proposed that language is learned based on the Nativist Theory of
Language Acquisition. The Nativist explains that “Children are born with a specific
innate ability to discover for themselves the underlying rules of a language system on the
basis of the samples of a natural language they are exposed to.”
Chomsky believes that language development is primarily a matter of maturation
and that that environment is of little significance. Language is innate, an aspects of
children’s genetic foundation (Owens, 2006).
Modern theorists cling that language is learned through interaction. They say that
children are biologically ready for language but they require extensive experience with
spoken language for ample development. Acquiring language is always an active and
interactive. This involves formulating, testing, and evaluating languages’ rule.
Interactionist Theory explains that language development is both biological and
social. They argue that language learning is influenced by the strong desire of children to

communicate with others. According to this theory, “children are born with a powerful
brain that matures slowly and predisposes them to acquire new understandings that they
are motivated to share with others”.
One of the modern theorists is Jerome Bruner. He stresses that parents and other
caregivers have critical role in the language acquisition process. He also proposes the use
of Language Acquisition Support System (LASS). This refers to the importance of a
child’s social support network, which works in conjunction with innate mechanisms to
encourage or suppress language development (by interacting and encouraging the child to
respond).
Learning Theories and Implications
Theories of Learning
A number of theories of learning have been devised to provide a theoretical
framework to explain in a unified manner the various variables affecting learning. These
are:
1. The S-R Bond Theory- This theory assumes that through conditioning specific
responses can be directly linked with a particular stimulus. These bonds are the
result of biological processes in the human system.
2. Behaviorism- This theory assumes that learning is a process of building
conditional reflexes through the substitution of one stimulus for another. It
completely denies the existence of instincts or inborn tendencies of the individual.
It is inferred that almost all that an individual becomes in relation to this theory is
a matter of conditioning of reflexes.

3. Gestalt Theory- This theory of learning emphasizes use of insights as a basic
principle and is opposed to trial and error. Learning in terms of modification of
behavior takes place in meaningful patterns and configuration.
4. Functionalism- This theory assumes that behavior and mental processes are
adaptive (functional). This state behavior and mental processes enable the
individual to adjust to a changing environment to maintain equilibrium (Zulueta
& Malaya, 2012).
Laws of Learning
Edward Lee Thordike, an American psychologist and lexicographer postulated
laws of learning. According to him, learning occurs by the establishment of responses to
action.
1. The Law of Readiness- this law emphasizes the need for adequate motivation and
preparation of the learner by way of setting the proper mind-set and fostering the
level of aspiration.
2. The Law of Exercise- this law adheres to the adage that “practice makes perfect”.
It means learning can be achieved through repetition of correct responses.
3. The Law of Effect- this law states that if the response is rewarded and the reward
is satisfying or pleasant, the learning connection is strengthened; however, if the
effect is unpleasant or annoying, the connection is weakened (Zulueta & Maglaya,
2012)

Behavioral Psychology and Learning
Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning
Social cognitive learning theory which was proposed by Albert Bandura has
become the most influential theory of learning and development. His theory added a
social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching
other people known as observational learning or modelling. It emphasizes the concept of
imitation as a form of learning. Learning according to this theory results from the ability
of the child to select the pattern of behavior to imitate. He also stresses the process of
learning through vicarious learning. It is a process of learning by way of seeing directly
or by hearing about consequences as a result of other people’s action (Zulueta & Malaya,
2012).
Basic Concepts of Social Cognitive Learning Theory
1. People can learn through observation.
There are three basic models of observational learning: (1) a live model
which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior, (2) a
verbal instructional model which involves descriptions and explanations of a
behavior, and (3) a symbolic model which involves real or fictional characters
displaying behaviors in books, films, televisions, programs, or online media.
2. Mental states are important to learning.
He describes intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as
pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment.
3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.

Four Learning Mechanisms in Observational Learning
Bandura enumerated four learning mechanisms that are essential in observational
learning (Zulueta & Maglaya, 2012):
1. Attention- it is essential that one pays attention to what is happening around
him.
2. Retention- it is not only important to attend closely to the observed behavior;
but also remember it at some later time for use.
3. Motivation- one is likely to initiate those that are rewarding for his behavior
and whom he likes to have similarities with or to value more.
4. Reinforcement- the association of stimulus particularly the anticipation of
rewards as a motivational factor.
Watson’s Classical Conditioning
John Broadus Watsons argued that any science of behavior must be based on
observable events, and his approach is known as behaviorism. His work was heavily
influenced by Ivan Pavlov who was first to demonstrate the process of classical
conditioning. It is a type of learning that results from the repeated pairing of stimuli. He
defined classical conditioning as learning that involves the modification of a reflex; the
conditioning stimulus, which is neutral at the start, eventually initiates the same
behavioral responses as the unconditioned stimulus (reflex reaction) (Owens, 2006).
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
A key concept in Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s system is the process of operant
conditioning. According to Skinner, it is a process of learning in which reinforced

behaviors tend to be repeated and occur more frequently (Owens, 2006). In other words,
if a response is followed by a reward, the response will be strengthened.
They concept of reinforcement is one of the significant contributions he made in
the concept of learning. Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the
probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. Reinforcement can be either
positive or negative. A positive reinforcement is a stimulus added to the environment that
brings about an increase in a preceding response. In contrast, negative reinforcement
refers to an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that
a preceding response will be repeated in the future (Magpantay & Danao, 2014).
Furthermore, he also emphasized the importance of reward in shaping the
behavior. Reward is a form of positive reinforcement that will help to increase the
probability the desired behavior will recur. Punishment is a form of negative
reinforcement that will help to decrease the probability the unpleasant behavior will not
recur.
Effective Teaching and Evaluation of Learning
Effective Teaching
Effective teachers strive to inspire and engage all their students in learning rather
than simply accepting the some students cannot be engaged and are destined to do poorly.
They believe every student is capable of achieving success at school and they do all they
can to find ways of making each student successful (O'Niel, n.d.).
1. Using a variety of pedagogies- Effective teachers use techniques or strategies
that best serve the learning needs of their students. They help students learn on

their own as well as with and from others. They know that students learn best
if they are provided with opportunities to learn not only from the teacher but
also from other students and from sources outside the school that are now
more readily accessible through various forms of technology.
2. Encouraging student responsibility- Effective teachers teach in a way that
encourages students to take greater responsibility for their own learning and
make sure their students know what the goals of the learning program.
3. Having mastery of subject matter- Effective teachers have a thorough
knowledge of their subject content and skills. Through this, they inspire in
their students a love of learning. They also understand how students learn best
the concepts, the content and the skills.
4. Providing safe environment- Effective teachers provide a safe and orderly
environment, both physically and emotionally, so students can achieve their
potential. They know students learn best if they are in a classroom where they
feel safe and confident to attempt new tasks even if at first they are unsure
about how to tackle them.
5. Monitoring progress and providing feedback- Effective teachers closely
monitor each student’s achievements. This enables them to provide every one
of their students with regular feedback on their performance, and gives them
valuable information to assess the impact of their teaching. They are in the
habit of constantly reflecting on how well they are getting through to their
students and searching for better ways of teaching those who are not
responding as well as extending those who are achieving well. They

understand the standards their students are expected to achieve and use a
range of assessment methods to determine the extent to which those standards
are being met and to plan the next steps.
6. Building positive relationships- Effective teachers develop productive
relationships with their students – they get to know them and take a particular
interest in their overall development and progress. They treat their students
with respect and expect the same in return. They work collaboratively to
benefit student learning.
Foundations of Bilingualism
Bilingual Language Development
“How does a bilingual child acquire language? And how do learning two
languages affect the child’s language development?”
Bilingualism is the person’s ability to speak or write fluently in two languages.
Bilingualism is distinguished into two (Bialystok & Hakuta, 1994):
1. Productive Bilingualism- Speaker can produce and understand both languages.
2. Receptive Bilingualism- Speaker can understand both languages but have more
limited production abilities.
Developing Bilingualism
According to Fierro-Cobas and Chan (Fierro-Cobas & Chan, 2001), language
development is a complex, dynamic process influenced by the child’s age, language
exposure and social interaction. A bilingual child generally follows one of the two
language acquisition patterns: simultaneous bilingualism, in which the child acquires two

languages at the same time before the age 3 years, and sequential bilingualism, in which
the child acquires a second language by age 3 having acquired the primary language.
Preschoolers may differ qualitatively from school-age children in their ability to
develop a second language. For older children and adult, acquiring a second language is a
conscious rather than subconscious process; more appropriately learned language
learning rather than language acquisition.
For example, Filipinos are not a native speaker of Spanish, and for them to learn
the language, they enroll to one of the language institutions that offers courses for
speaking and writing.
Two Major Patterns in Bilingual Language Acquisition
1. Simultaneous Bilingualism- children go through two stages to simultaneously
learn two languages.
Stage 1: Children mix or blend words or part of words from both
languages. Example: “Gusto ko hat.”
Stage 2: Child can distinguish the two languages, and can use each
language separately. Example: “I want hat.” and “Gusto ko ng sombrero.”
2. Sequential Bilingualism- Fierro-Cobas and Chan (Fierro-Cobas & Chan, 2001)
explained that the process of developing a second language before age 3 is
slightly different from a process of developing the first language. The reasons are:
a. A sequential bilingual child can draw on knowledge and experience
with the first language.

b. Whether and for how long a child passes through several phases in
sequential language acquisition process depends on his temperament
and motivation.
c. The relative exposure to second language compared with the first
language can affect how a child develops the second language.

Bibliography
Bialystok, E. & Hakuta, K., 1994. In Other Words: the Science and Psychology of Second
Language Acquisition. New York: Harper Collins.
Fierro-Cobas, V. & Chan, E., 2001. Language Development in Bilingual Children: A
Primer for Pediatricians. [Online]
Available at: http://courses.washington.edu/sop/Bilingualism_PrimerPediatricians.pdf
[Accessed 12 August 2013].
Gallagher , C., 1999. Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky. [Online]
Available at: http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/vygotsky.htm
Gines, A. C. et al., 1998. Developmental Psychology: A Textbook for College Students in
Pschology and Teacher Education. Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc..
Magpantay, C. D. & Danao, R. R., 2014. General Psychology. Rizal: Jenher Publishing
House.
Mastin, L., 2010. The Human Memory. [Online]
Available at: http://www.human-memory.net
McLeod, S., 2012. Zone of Proximal Development. [Online]
Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html
Meece, J. L., 2002. Child and Adolescent Development for Educators. 2nd ed. New York
: McGraw-Hill.
O'Niel, S., n.d. Department of Education and Training. [Online]
Available at: file:///C:/Users/user/Downloads/Effective%20Teaching.pdf
Owens, K. B., 2006. Child and Adolescent Development: An Integrated Approach.
Singapore: Thomson - Wadsworth.
Wikipedia, 2013. Imitation. [Online]
Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imitation

Wikipedia, 2013. Information Processing Theory. [Online]
Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processing_theory
Zulueta, F. M. & Maglaya, E. M., 2012. Foundations of Education. Mandaluyong City:
National Book Store.
Zulueta, F. M. & Malaya, E. M., 2012. Historical, Anthropological, Philosophical, Legal,
Psychological, Sociological Foundations of Education. Mandaluyong City: National
Bookstore.

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