cONTENT
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW OF INFORMATION PROCESSING
2.0 MAJOR THEORIES ON INFORMATION PROCESSING
2.1. STAGE MODEL
2.2 LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING THEORY
2.3 PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING THEORY (PDP)
2.4 CONNECTIONISTIC MODELS
3.0 SENSORY INFORMATION PROCESSING
3.1 AUDITORY INFORMATION PROCESSING
3.2 VISUAL INFORMATION PROCESSING
4.0 ATTENTION
4.1 DIVIDED ATTENTION
4.2 AUTOMATICITY PROCESSING
5.0 HUMAN ERROR
5.1 WHY WE MAKE ERROR?
cONTENT
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW OF INFORMATION PROCESSING
2.0 MAJOR THEORIES ON INFORMATION PROCESSING
2.1. STAGE MODEL
2.2 LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING THEORY
2.3 PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING THEORY (PDP)
2.4 CONNECTIONISTIC MODELS
3.0 SENSORY INFORMATION PROCESSING
3.1 AUDITORY INFORMATION PROCESSING
3.2 VISUAL INFORMATION PROCESSING
4.0 ATTENTION
4.1 DIVIDED ATTENTION
4.2 AUTOMATICITY PROCESSING
5.0 HUMAN ERROR
5.1 WHY WE MAKE ERROR?
Jean Piaget: Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentAyushi Gupta
This presentation focuses on the Theory of Cognitive Development given by Jean Piaget. It includes the life history of Jean Piaget, the meaning of cognition and cognitive development, the stages of development given by Piaget and the educational implications of the theory.
Schema theory explanation including psychologists experiment.
Covers entire topic - Stages, developmental process, experiments by Bartlett, Brewer & Treyens, & French and Richards.
Jean Piaget: Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentAyushi Gupta
This presentation focuses on the Theory of Cognitive Development given by Jean Piaget. It includes the life history of Jean Piaget, the meaning of cognition and cognitive development, the stages of development given by Piaget and the educational implications of the theory.
Schema theory explanation including psychologists experiment.
Covers entire topic - Stages, developmental process, experiments by Bartlett, Brewer & Treyens, & French and Richards.
8Cognitive Development Information ProcessingDigital Visi.docxblondellchancy
8Cognitive Development: Information Processing
Digital Vision/Photodisc/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
ሁ Identify various components of information-processing theory and explain how they are used to
organize information.
ሁ Synthesize evidence to explain how we know that infants develop memories.
ሁ Trace the expansion of memory development throughout childhood, according to information-
processing theory.
ሁ Explain how verbatim memory trace and gist are integrated into fuzzy trace theory.
ሁ Differentiate between selective attention and sustained attention.
ሁ Appraise available information on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, including standards for
diagnosis, its causes, and treatment.
ሁ Understand how executive function is applied to cognitive development.
ሁ Evaluate the application of cognitive theory to contemporary education.
Section 8.1Information-Processing Approach
Prologue
What is your earliest memory? Although most people think they have memories from when
they were 2 or 3 years old, psychologists have known for a long time that we actually con-
struct early memories from a combination of photographs, stories we have heard, and our
imaginations. We know that infants who escaped the Jewish Holocaust in Germany or the
ethnic cleansing in Bosnia, or who suffered other kinds of trauma, do not have any recollec-
tion of their early childhoods. Children born into privilege with generally happy experiences
have a similar lack of early memory.
But we know that infants do indeed remember from moment to moment. Otherwise, they
would not learn to search for objects, would not be able to distinguish their primary caregiv-
ers from strangers, and would not have consistent preferences for favorite foods and other
stimuli. The information-processing model of cognitive development acknowledges that
memory, along with attention, is a key determinant of the way that a child’s mind develops.
Unlike Piaget’s stage model, information-processing views growth as a steady, progressive
process that is the result of exposure to and processing of information. That is, it describes
incremental improvements in the amount of information that developing children store
and use.
The information-processing approach is a more contemporary theory; it is modeled after
the way in which information flows logically in computers. Because it is theorized that
human information-processing involves the encoding, storage, and retrieval of informa-
tion—just like a computer—the study of memory is an essential part of the theory. As
such, it is a focus of this module. For humans, there is the additional factor of attention.
Without attention, the input of stimuli is modified greatly—if it occurs at all. This module
also explores the issues and potential controversies of a commonly diagnosed attention
disorder. Finally, the module closes with a discussion of how the information-pro ...
It is about learning, cognitive learning, information processing model, sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory, metacognition, diversity and principles of cognitive learning.
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Information Processing Theory(IPT)
1.
2. • Information processing views the mind as a complex ,symbol
manipulating system much like a computer.
• Helps to understand what children of different ages do when
they face with tasks /problems.
• Information processing involves attention, memory and
thinking.
• Within this model humans are compared to computer
3. The Information processing theory
• First advanced by Klahr and Wallace(1976) and Siegler (1998)
• It analyses how children manipulate information, monitor it
and create strategies for handling it.(Halford
&Andrews,2011).
• It emphasizes the detailed analysis of the processes involved
in individual tasks given to a child and his/her ability to meet
the processing demands.
6. •From the time an information is presented to the senses as
(Input) until it emerges as behavioural response(output),
information is actively coded, transformed and organized.
•Children’s IP -limited by the capacity and speed and abilty to
process information.
•Cognitive Development depend upon the ability to overcome
processing limitations by
•Acquiring, expanding, executing new knowledge and
strategies.
*IP-Information Processing
7. SPEED AND CAPACITY OF INFORMATION
PROCESSING
•Speed and Capacity- “Cognitive resources”-influences memory
and problem solving .
•Biology and experience contributes to growth in cognitive
resources.(Goldstein,2011;Reed,2010)
•Increases in Speed underlie age related changes in cognitive
skills(Edmonds et.al,2008)
•So processing speed may underlie individual differences in IQ
scores(Thomas &Karmiloff-Smith,2003).
•Speed is linked to Central Nervous System functioning and to
IQ(Correlation of 0.45)
8. •Pruning and other biological changes in the brain-affect the
functioning at structural level.
•Mylination-Increases speed of processing by increasing the
speed of electrical impulses in the brain(Paus,2009)
•Increase in capacity-improves processing of information(Halford
&Andrews,2011;Mayer,2008)
As children’s IP capacity Increases-likely to hold several
dimensions of a topic/problem.
9. MECHANISM OF CHANGE
According to Robert Siegler (1998)-3 mechanisms that
work together to create change in the cognitive skills.
1. ENCODING
2. AUTOMATICITY
3. STRATEGY CONSTRUCTION
10. ENCODING
The process by which information gets in to memory.
Changes in children’s cognitive skills depend on increased skills
at encoding relevant information and ignoring irrelevant
information.
Eg: To a 4 yr old, s in cursive writing is a shape very different
from ‘S’ in printed form.
But for a 10yr old –he has learned to encode the relevant facts
that both are letter “s” and he ignores the difference in shape.
11. Encoding-Initial stage of receiving a stimulus .
Influenced by Maturation and experience- novices
remember new information less well than an expert.
12. The ability to process information with little or no effort.
Practice allows to encode more information automatically.
Eg: If a child has learned to read well, they don’t think about
each letter in a word as a letter ; instead they encode whole
words.
Once a task is automatic-doesn’t require conscious effort-IP
becomes more automatic.
AUTOMATICITY
13. “Creation of new procedures for processing information”
Eg. Children’s reading benefits when they develop
strategy of stopping periodically to take stock of what
they have read so far(Pressley,2007)
STRATEGY CONSTRUCTION
14. Children learn to use what they have learned previously to
adapt their responses to a new situation.
Metacognition- part of self modification
“Knowing about knowing”(Flavell,2004)
Eg. Children try out different methods and see which they like
the best –Later, learn how to select the best route to solve a
problem-IP become efficient.
*SELF MODIFICATION
15. “Memory is the retention of information over time”
(Santrock,2013)
According to Atkinson & Shiffrin(1968),3 stages of mental
processing
1. Sensory memory
Associated with sensual perception
Act as portal for all information that is to be a part of the
memory
Last for about ½ sec to 3 sec.
16. 2. Short term memory
Working memory
Conscious/active memory that is actively processed when a
new information is being taken in.
Lasts for 15-30sec
May be lost if not rehearsed
17. 3. Long term memory
Houses all previous perceptions, knowledge and information
learned by an individual.
Permanent store of information- resides in a dormant state-
until fetched it back into consciousness.
Information stored for extended period of time and limits of its
capacity is not known.
Chunking and rehearsal helps to keep information as long
term.
18. EXTERNAL
STIMULI
SENSORY
MEMORY
(SM)
SHORT TERM
MEMORY
(STM)
LONG TERM
MEMORY
(LTM)
•In sensory memory-sensual information is held very briefly
before being lost.
•If attended to, analyzed and encoded as meaningful pattern, we
say that it has been perceived- enters STM. If nothing further is
done –information shall disappear within 15-20 sec
•If STM is further processes –Information will be encoded into
LTM-remains forever
19. • Attention is the focusing of mental resources.
• Improves cognitive processing for many tasks.
• Children allocate attention mainly in 4 ways:
Selective attention-Focusing on a specific aspect that is
relevant while ignoring other irrelevant things.
Divided attention- Concentrating on more than one activity
at the same time.
20. Sustained attention-Ability to maintain attention to a
selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time.
Executive attention- Involves action planning, allocating
attention to goals, error detection and compensation
,monitoring progress on tasks and dealing with novel or
difficult circumstances.
Attention and memory –steps towards
“thinking”
22. Incoming
stimulus
information
Stage 1- Stage 2- Stage3- Stage 4- Stage 5-
FIG.: An information processing system-Some stage depends on Short term
memory and long term memory and require some attention
1.SENSORY PROCESSING
2. PERCEPTION
3. DECISION MAKING
4. RESPONSE,SELECTION ,ACTION
5. RESPONSE EXECUTION
MEMORY
ATTENTION
23. Action that has been taken provides new information-
passed to the system of processing in the ongoing circle
of thought(Douglas,2011)
The information processing approach –clarifies the
processing of social information.
eg: How children solve social problems and acquire gender
based preferences and behaviours(Crick & Dodge; Liben
&Bigler,2002)-
Helps to design intervention that promote favourable
social development.
24. STEPS IN INFORMATION PROCESSING
1. ENCODING
Input of the information into the memory system.
Sensory Information is organized with other similar
information and connect it with existing concepts.
This occurs through automaticity.
Types of encoding
Semantic encoding(encoding of sensory input that has
particular meaning)
Visual encoding(encoding visual sensory information)
Acoustic encoding(encoding of auditory impulses)
25. 2. STORAGE
Permanent record of information.
For a memory to go into storage ,it has to move
through S.M*, S.T.M**,L.T.M***
*S.M-Sensory memory **S.T.M-Short term memory
***L.T.M-Long term memory
26. 3. RETRIEVAL
Act of getting information out of memory
storage and back into conscious awareness.
3ways of retrieval
i. RECALL- Accessing information without cues.
ii. RECOGNITION- Identifying information that
was learned after encountering it again-
involves comparison process
iii. RELEARNING- Learning information that was
learned before
28. It acknowledges that humans have immense thinking
capability
The theory is being utilized in the study of computer or
artificial intelligences
Looks closely at how stimulation from the environment goes
though the process of attention, perception and storage
throughout a series of distinct memory stores.
Contributes to learning theories.
CONTRIBUTIONS/STRENGTHS OF
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
29.
30. CRITICISMS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING
THEORY
The metaphor of the computer is off-putting to many people.
No current computer program can be truly simulate the full
range of human cognition.
It doesn’t account for fundamental developmental changes in
the brain.
It gives excess focus on the internal cognitive processes, and
pays little focus on environmental influence or the nature of
external stimuli to which the individual is exposed to.
31. Impacts of emotions or behaviours on cognitive
processing is not explained.
It doesn’t consider individual or cultural differences.