Theories and concept 1

1. Prepared by:
Iris E. Israel

3. is a "group of theoretical frameworks that
address
• how human beings receive,
•mentally modify,
•remember information,
•On how such cognitive processes change
over the course of development"
INFORMATION PROCESSING
THEORY

4. •theory that attempts to categorize the
way information is recognized, utilized,
and stored in the memory.
•This theory recognizes the ability for a
person to control what information is
processed and the changes and
INFORMATION PROCESSING
THEORY CONT’D

5. •Thinking
•Analysis of stimuli
•Situational modification
•Obstacle evaluation
THE FOUR PILLARS OF THE
INFORMATION PROCESSING
MODEL

6. Thinking
The process of thinking includes the
activities of perception of external
stimuli, encoding the same and storing
the data so perceived and encoded in
one's mental recesses

7. Analysis of stimuli
This is the process by which the encoded stimuli are
altered to suit the brain's cognition and interpretation
process to enable decision making. There are four
distinct sub-processes that form a favourable
alliance to make the brain arrive at a conclusion
regarding the encoded stimuli it has received and
kept stored. These four sub-processes are encoding,
strategization, generalization and automatization.

8. Situational modification
This is the process by which an individual
uses his experience, which is nothing other
than a collection of stored memories, to
handle a similar situation in future. In case of
certain differences in both situations, the
individual modifies the decisions they took
during their previous experience to come up
with solutions for the somewhat different

9. Obstacle evaluation
This step maintains that besides the subject's
individual development level, the nature of the
obstacle or problem should also be taken into
consideration while evaluating the subject's
intellectual, problem solving and cognitive acumen.
Sometimes, unnecessary and misleading information
can confuse the subject and he / she may show
signs of confusion while dealing with a situation
which is similar to one he / she was exposed to
before, which he / she was able to handle

10. 1. Sensory Memory
2. Working Memory
3. Long-term Memory
Structure of the information-
processing system
:

11. Information is received through a
person's senses, it comes from the
environment around you
(McDevitt & Ormrod, 2004)
Sensory
Memory

12. holds information associated with
the senses (e.g., vision, hearing)
just long enough for the
information to be processed
further (mere seconds).
Sensory Memory Cont’d

13. Sensory Register
• detects visual, auditory, haptic (touch),
smell, taste, temperature, pain, body
position information
 filters out much of the world's potential
information
 limited capacity
 seconds before decay
 unconscious

14. STM functions as a temporary working
memory, whereby further processing is carried
out to make information ready for long-term
storage or for a response.
Working memory holds information for a
limited amount of time and holds a limited
amount of information.
Working
Memory

15. WORKING MEMORY
CONT’D
•Where information is processed and
"problem solving" occurs; the working
memory usually only processes things for
a short period of time.
• The working memory will process
information for longer periods of time if the
person is actively concentrating on the

16. B. Working memory
 Encoding: recasts sensory
information into meaningful
representations suitable for
manipulation, using strategies like
 rehearsal
 organization
 elaboration
 Limited in capacity

17. Encoding/Learning Strategies
 Rehearsal – attempting to learn something by
repeating it over and over; repetition
 Organization – attempting to learn something by
identifying relationships among pieces of
information as a way of categorizing them
 Elaboration – embellishing on new information
based on what you already know (using prior
knowledge)
 Environmental factors, e.g., culture, affect the
kinds of strategies that children develop
 Children are more likely to use effective learning
strategies when teachers and other adults
encourage their use, or when it is culturallyTeresa M. McDevitt and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Child Development and Education, third edition
Copyright ©2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

18. •where the information remembered over
time is kept; there are many ways that
information is moved from working memory
into long term memory
•represents our permanent storehouse of
information, capable of retaining an unlimited
Long-term Memory

19. C. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
 The ability to remember information in LTM
appears very early and improves with age
 Children increasingly have conscious awareness
of the past
 Infantile amnesia – general inability to recall past
events during the early years of life
 The amount of knowledge stored in LTM increases
many times over
 Knowledge base – one’s knowledge about specific
topics and the world in general
Teresa M. McDevitt and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Child Development and Education, third edition
Copyright ©2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

20. Children’s knowledge about the
world becomes increasingly
integrated
Schemas – tightly integrated set of ideas about a
specific object or situation
Scripts – schema that involves a predictable
sequence of events related to a common activity
Children’s growing knowledge base
facilitates learning

21. Thinking and Reasoning
 Thought increasingly makes use of symbols
 Symbols – mental entity that represents an external object
or event, often without reflecting its perceptual and
behavioral qualities
 Logical thinking abilities improve with age
 Some logical thinking is evident in infancy
 Perceive cause and effect relationships as young
as 6 months old
 Reasoning is still influenced by personal motives and
biases
 Gestures
 Sometimes foreshadow the emergence of more
sophisticated thinking and reasoning (e.g., Conservation
task)Teresa M. McDevitt and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Child Development and Education, third edition
Copyright ©2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

22. Explicit Memory (declarative memory)
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Autobiographical Memory
Implicit Memory (Procedural memory)
Priming
Divisions of Long Term
Memory

23. includes all of the memories that are
available in consciousness.
These are encoded by the hippocampus,
entorhinal cortex, and perirhinal cortex, but
consolidated and stored elsewhere
Explicit Memory
(declarative)

24. Episodic memory refers to memory for
specific events in time, as well as
supporting their formation and retrieval.
Some examples of episodic memory would
be remembering someone's name and what
happened at your last interaction with each
other.
Episodic Memory

25. Semantic Memory
Semantic memory refers to
knowledge about factual information,
such as the meaning of words.
Semantic memory is independent
information such as information
remembered for a test

26. Semantic Memory-- facts and generalized information (concepts, principles,
rules; problem-solving strategies; learning strategies)
Schema / Schemata -- networks of connected ideas or relationships;
data structures or procedures for organizing the parts of a specific
experience into a meaningful system (like a standard or stereotype)
Proposition -- interconnected set of concepts and relationships; if/then
statements (smallest unit of information that can be judged true or false)
Script -- "declarative knowledge structure that captures general
information about a routine series of events or a recurrent type of social
event, such as eating in a restaurant or visiting the doctor" (Stillings et
al., 1987)
Frame -- complex organization including concepts and visualizations
that provide a reference within which stimuli and actions are judged
(also called "Frame of Reference")
Scheme -- an organization of concepts, principles, rules, etc. that define
a perspective and presents specific action patterns to follow
Program -- set of rules that define what to do in a particular situation
Paradigm -- the basic way of perceiving, thinking, valuing, and doing
associated with a particular vision of reality (Harman, 1970)
Model -- a set of propositions or equations describing in simplified form
some aspects of our experience. Every model is based upon a theory or
paradigm, but the theory or paradigm may not be stated in concise form.

27. Autobiographical Memory
Autobiographical memory refers to
knowledge about events and
personal experiences from an
individual's own life

28. Procedural memory involves memories of
body movement and how to use objects in the
environment. How to drive a car or use a
computer are examples of procedural
memories
Implicit Memory (Procedural
Memory)

29. Implicit Memory Cont’d
Implicit memory - refers to the use of objects or movements
of the body, such as how exactly to use a pencil, drive a car,
or ride a bicycle. This type of memory is encoded and it is
presumed stored by the striatum and other parts of the basal
ganglia. The basal ganglia is believed to mediate procedural
memory and other brain structures and is largely
independent of the hippocampus.Research by Manelis,
Hanson, and Hanson (2011) found that the reactivation of the
parietal and occipital regions was associated with implicit
memory. Procedural memory is considered non-declarative
memory or unconscious memory which includes priming and

30. Priming
Priming is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to
a stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus. It can
occur following perceptual, semantic, or conceptual
stimulus repetition. For example, if a person reads a list of
words including the word table, and is later asked to
complete a word starting with tab, the probability that he
or she will answer table is greater than if they are not
primed. Another example is if people see an incomplete
sketch they are unable to identify and they are shown
more of the sketch until they recognize the picture, later

31. Attention;
Rehearsal;
Chunking;
Encoding;
Retrieval.
Processes that keep information "alive"
or help transfer it from one memory
stage to the next:

32. Selective attention refers to the learner's ability to select
and process certain information while simultaneously
ignoring other information.
Several factors influence attention:
•The meaning that the task or information holds for the
individual
•Similarity between competing tasks or sources of
information
Attention

33. Rehearsal is the process where information is kept
in short-term memory by mentally repeating it.
When the information is repeated each time, that
information is reentered into the short-term memory,
thus keeping that information for another 15 to 20
seconds (the average storage time for short-term
memory)
Rehearsal

34. Chunking is the process by which
one can expand his/her ability to
remember things in the short term.
Chunking is also a process by which
a person organizes material into
meaningful groups.
Chunking

35. refers to the process of relating incoming information to
concepts and ideas already in memory in such a way
that the new material is more memorable. Various
encoding schemes include:
•Organization, e.g.:
-grouping information into categories
-outlines
-hierarchies
-concept trees
•Mnemonics
Encoding

36. Retrieval of Information from Long-Term Memory
The process of retrieval from LTM involves bringing
to mind previously learned information, to either (a)
understand some new input or (b) make a response.
Making a response may involve either recall or
recognition.
Retrieval

37. Recall or Recognition.
Recall
In free recall situations, learners must retrieve previously
stored information with no cues or hints to help them
remember. Cued recall tasks are those in which a hint or
cue is provided to help learners remember the desired
information.
Recognition involves a set of pregenerated stimuli (e.g.,
multiple-choice questions) presented to learners for a
decision or judgment.

38. Environment and
heredity
Factors that can influence
intelligence and the processing
of information