The document summarizes key aspects of respiratory physiology:
- Oxygen is transported by blood primarily bound to hemoglobin while carbon dioxide is transported through dissolution and by forming bicarbonate ions.
- The respiratory system has a conducting zone that transports air to the respiratory zone where gas exchange occurs across the respiratory membrane in the alveoli.
- Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into the blood and is carried to tissues where it diffuses into cells. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissues into blood and is carried to the lungs to diffuse out of blood into alveoli.
LOCATION: WALL OF GUT
NEURONS: 100 MILLIONS
GIT MOVEMENTS AND SECRETIONS
COMPOSED: TWO PLEXUSES
OUTER PLEXUS (MYENTERIC AND AUERBACH'S PLEXUS)
INNER PLEXUS (MEISSNER'S PLEXUS AND SUBMUCOSAL PLEXUS)
MYENTERIC PLEXUS
GI MOVEMENTS
SUBMUCOSAL PLEXUS
SECRETION AND LOCAL BLOOD FLOW
PHYSIOLOGY OF ANS(AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM)
Sympathetic Responses
Parasympathetic Responses
Autonomic Interactions
Control of Autonomic Nervous System Function
LOCATION: WALL OF GUT
NEURONS: 100 MILLIONS
GIT MOVEMENTS AND SECRETIONS
COMPOSED: TWO PLEXUSES
OUTER PLEXUS (MYENTERIC AND AUERBACH'S PLEXUS)
INNER PLEXUS (MEISSNER'S PLEXUS AND SUBMUCOSAL PLEXUS)
MYENTERIC PLEXUS
GI MOVEMENTS
SUBMUCOSAL PLEXUS
SECRETION AND LOCAL BLOOD FLOW
PHYSIOLOGY OF ANS(AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM)
Sympathetic Responses
Parasympathetic Responses
Autonomic Interactions
Control of Autonomic Nervous System Function
In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that sit at the top of the kidneys. They are chiefly responsible for releasing hormones in response to stress through the synthesis of corticosteroids such as cortisol and catecholamines such as adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline. They also produce androgens in their innermost cortical layer. The adrenal glands affect kidney function through the secretion of aldosterone, and recent data (1998) suggest that adrenocortical cells under pathological as well as under physiological conditions show neuroendocrine properties; within normal adrenal glands, this neuroendocrine differentiation seems to be restricted to cells of the zona glomerulosa and might be important for an autocrine regulation of adrenocortical function.
anatomy and physiology of adrenal cortex . detail of artery and venous supply along with histological differences of adrenal cortex . detail of biosynthesis of adrenocorticosteroids. reaction of biosynthesis of cortisol , androgen and aldosterone in different region ie. zona fasciculata, zona reticularis and zona glomerulosa respectively. biochemical function of cortisol and aldosterone along with structures. congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that sit at the top of the kidneys. They are chiefly responsible for releasing hormones in response to stress through the synthesis of corticosteroids such as cortisol and catecholamines such as adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline. They also produce androgens in their innermost cortical layer. The adrenal glands affect kidney function through the secretion of aldosterone, and recent data (1998) suggest that adrenocortical cells under pathological as well as under physiological conditions show neuroendocrine properties; within normal adrenal glands, this neuroendocrine differentiation seems to be restricted to cells of the zona glomerulosa and might be important for an autocrine regulation of adrenocortical function.
anatomy and physiology of adrenal cortex . detail of artery and venous supply along with histological differences of adrenal cortex . detail of biosynthesis of adrenocorticosteroids. reaction of biosynthesis of cortisol , androgen and aldosterone in different region ie. zona fasciculata, zona reticularis and zona glomerulosa respectively. biochemical function of cortisol and aldosterone along with structures. congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
Transport of oxygen (the guyton and hall physiology)Maryam Fida
Supply of oxygen to tissues mainly involves two systems i.e. respiratory system and the cardiovascular system.
Supply of oxygen to tissues depends upon
Adequate PO2 in atmospheric air
Adequate pulmonary ventilation
Adequate gaseous exchange in the lungs
Adequate uptake of oxygen by the blood
Adequate blood flow to the tissues
Adequate ability of the tissues to utilize oxygen
Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillary blood because the oxygen partial pressure (Po2) in the alveoli is greater than the Po2 in the pulmonary capillary blood.
In the other tissues of the body, a higher Po2 in the capillary blood than in the tissues causes oxygen to diffuse into the surrounding cells.
The Po2 of the gaseous oxygen in the alveolus averages 104 mm Hg,
whereas the Po2 of the venous blood entering the pulmonary capillary at its arterial end averages only 40 mm Hg
Therefore, the initial pressure difference that causes oxygen to diffuse into the pulmonary capillary is 104 – 40, or 64 mm Hg.
About 98 percent of the blood that enters the left atrium from the lungs has just passed through the alveolar capillaries and has become oxygenated up to a Po2 of about 104 mm Hg.
Another 2 per cent of the blood which supplies mainly the deep tissues of the lungs and is not exposed to lung air. This blood flow is
called “shunt flow,” meaning that blood is shunted past the gas exchange areas
One gram of Hb can bind 1.34 ml of Oxygen
Normal level of Hb is 15 grams/dL
Thus 15 grams of hemoglobin in 100 milliliters of blood can combine with a total of almost exactly 20 milliliters of oxygen if the hemoglobin is 100 per cent saturated
This is usually expressed as 20 volumes per cent
Hemoglobin is a conjugated protein consisting of heme and globin.
The ferrous form can bind oxygen.
Hemoglobin molecule consists of four subunits each consists of one heme and one polypeptide chain
Each subunit can bind one molecule of Oxygen
Oxygenation is a very rapid and reversible process and it can occur in 0.01 seconds
When PO2 is high, oxygen binds with Hb to form Oxyhemoglbin
When PO2 is low oxygen leaves Hb to form Deoxy Hb.
Factors that shift the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve
Breathing and Exchange of Gases Class 11thNehaRohtagi1
Created By: NehaRohtagi1
Class 11th CBSE [NCERT]
Biology Chapter 17
Notes on the topic: Breathing and Exchange of Gases
For Class - 11th
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Respiratory system and includes gases exchanges, functions, factors, disorder...Manmeetkaur215
Respiratory system and gases exchanges. Function of organs, factors, disorders all are included in these slides with suitable diagrams and description.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
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Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
1. Submitted To: Dr.Mansur Abdullah
Submitted By:
Waqas Nawaz (11-arid-975)
Mujahid Hussain (11-arid-981)
Khurram Nasir (11-arid-984)
2. Respiratory Physiology
Respiratory physiology is the branch of human physiology concerned with respiration.
Respiration
In physiology, respiration is defined as the transport of O2 from the outside air to the cells
within tissues, and the transport of CO2 in the opposite direction. This is in contrast to
the biochemical definition of respiration, which refers to cellular respiration.
Transport Of Oxygen
97% is transported by chemical combination with hemoglobin and only 3% through dissolved
state.
Transport Of Carbon Dioxide
Dissolved State: At an average Pco2 of 45 mm Hg, 100 ml of blood contains 2.7 ml of Co2 in
various blood. In arterial blood 100 ml contains 2.4. ml of Co2 at 40 mm Hg, so 0.3 ml Co2 is
transported in dissolved state. It accounts for 7% of Co2 transport.
Transport in form of Hco3 ions: In blood Co2 reacts with water and forms Carbonic acid in
presence of enzyme Carbonic anhydrase.
Chemical Regulation:
Co2 Respiration rate increases
H+ Respiration rate increases
H+ Respiration rate decreases
In case of increased Co2 concentration in blood it diffuses into CSF but not H+
Basic Function Of The Respiratory System
Gas Exchange-supply O2 to aerobic tissues in the body & remove CO2 as a waste product.
3. The Respiratory System
Respiratory system has two zones: (1) Conducting Zone (2) Respiratory Zone
Conducting Zone:-
Rigid conduits for air to reach site of gas exchange:
-Nose
-Nasal cavity
-Pharynx
-Larynx
-Trachea
-Bronchi
Respiratory Zone:-
Site of gas exchange:
-Respiratory bronchioles (less than 0.5 mm in diameter)
-Alveoli (300 million)
-Alveolar ducts
-Alveolar sacs
Respiratory Zone
-Respiratory bronchioiles (less than 0.5 mm in diameter)
-Alveoli (300 million)
-Alveolar ducts
-Alveolar sacs
4. Respiratory Membrane
It plays a vital role in gaseous exchange. It is about 0.5μ in thickness
Respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier) or (Alveolar-capillary membrane) is composed of:
-Simple squamous epithelial cells (Type I cells)
-Cobweb of pulmonary capillaries
6. Transport of Oxygen and Carbon
Dioxide in Blood and Tissue Fluids
When O2 is diffused from alveoli into pulmonary blood.Then it is transported to peripheral tissue
capillaries in combination with Haemoglobin. The presence of hemoglobin in the red blood cells
allows the blood to transport 30 to 100 times as much oxygen as could be transported in the
form of dissolved oxygen in the water of the blood.
The cause of movement of gases is always a partial pressure difference.Thus, oxygen diffuses
from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillary blood because the oxygen partial pressure (Po2) in
the alveoli is greater than the Po2 in the pulmonary capillary blood. In the other tissues of the
body, a higher Po2 in the capillary blood than in the tissues causes oxygen to diffuse into the
surrounding cells.
Conversely, when oxygen is metabolized in the cells to form carbon dioxide, the intracellular
carbon dioxide pressure (Pco2) rises to a high value, which causes carbon dioxide to diffuse
into the tissue capillaries. After blood flows to the lungs, the carbon dioxide diffuses out of the
blood into the alveoli, because the Pco2 in the pulmonary capillary blood is greater than that in
the alveoli. Thus, the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide by the blood depends on both
diffusion and the flow of blood.
Diffusion of Oxygen from the Peripheral Capillaries into the Tissue Fluid
When the arterial blood reaches the peripheral tissues, its Po2 in the capillaries is still 95 mm
Hg.The Po2 in the interstitial fluid that surrounds the tissue cells averages only 40 mm Hg.
Thus, there is a tremendous initial pressure difference that causes oxygen to diffuse rapidly
from the capillary blood into the tissues so rapidly that the capillary Po2 falls almost to equal the
40 mm Hg pressure in the interstitium. Therefore, the Po2 of the blood leaving the tissue
capillaries and entering the systemic veins is also about 40 mm Hg.
Diffusion of Oxygen from the Peripheral Capillaries to the Tissue Cells
Oxygen is always being used by the cells. Therefore, the intracellular Po2 in the peripheral
tissue cells remains lower than the Po2 in the peripheral capillaries.There is considerable
physical distance between the capillaries and the cells.
Transport of Carbon Dioxide in the Blood
Transport of carbon dioxide by the blood is not nearly as problematical as transport of oxygen is,
because even in the most abnormal conditions, carbon dioxide can usually be transported in far
greater quantities than oxygen can be. However, the amount of carbon reaction between carbon
dioxide and water and accelerates its reaction rate about 5000-fold. Therefore, instead of
requiring many seconds or minutes to occur, as is true in the plasma, the reaction occurs so
rapidly in the red blood cells that it reaches almost complete equilibrium within a very small
fraction of a second. This allows tremendous amounts of carbon dioxide to react with the red
blood cell water even before the blood leaves the tissue capillaries.
To begin the process of carbon dioxide transport, carbon dioxide diffuses out of the tissue cells in
the dissolved molecular carbon dioxide form. On entering the tissue capillaries, the carbon
dioxide initiates a host of almost instantaneous physical and chemical reactions, which are
essential for carbon dioxide transport.
7. O2 released & CO2 pickup at the tissues
O2 pickup & CO2 releases in lungs
Diffusion of Carbon Dioxide from the Peripheral Tissue Cells into the
Capillaries and from the Pulmonary Capillaries into the Alveoli
8. Transport of CO2 from tissue cells into alveoli
When oxygen is used by the cells, virtually all of it becomes carbon dioxide, and this increases
the intracellular Pco2; because of this high tissue cell Pco2, carbon dioxide diffuses from the
cells into the tissue capillaries and is then carried by the blood to the lungs. In the lungs, it
diffuses from the pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli and is expired.
At each point in the gas transport chain, carbon dioxide diffuses in the direction exactly opposite
to the diffusion of oxygen. There is one major difference between diffusion of carbon dioxide
and of oxygen: carbon dioxide can diffuse about 20 times as rapidly as oxygen.Therefore,
the pressure differences required to cause carbon dioxide diffusion are, in each instance, far
less than the pressure differences required to cause oxygen diffusion. The CO2 pressures are
approximately the following:
1. Intracellular Pco2, 46 mm Hg; interstitial Pco2, 45 mm Hg. Thus, there is only a 1 mm Hg
pressure differential
2. Pco2 of the arterial blood entering the tissues, 40 mm Hg; Pco2 of the venous blood leaving
the tissues, 45 mm Hg. Thus, the tissue capillary blood comes almost exactly to equilibrium with
the interstitial Pco2 of 45 mm Hg.
3. Pco2 of the blood entering the pulmonary capillaries at the arterial end, 45 mm Hg; Pco2 of
the alveolar air, 40 mm Hg. Thus, only a 5 mm Hg pressure difference causes all the required
carbon dioxide diffusion out of the pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli. Furthermore, the Pco2
of the pulmonary capillary blood falls to almost exactly equal the alveolar Pco2 of 40 mm Hg
before it has passed more than about one third the distance through the capillaries. This is the
same effect that was observed earlier for oxygen diffusion, except that it is in the opposite
direction.