Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that maintain life, including energy metabolism and the building and breakdown of compounds. Energy is used to build larger molecules through anabolism and released during catabolism. ATP is the main energy source for cells, produced through catabolism. Metabolic efficiency converts about 50% of food energy to ATP with the rest lost as heat. Nutrients are broken down into smaller units through digestion then further broken down into two-carbon compounds to be degraded into carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy. Enzymes and coenzymes facilitate these chemical reactions.
Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine ...
This presentation was prepared in order to take Lecture of students in a summarised way and to provide them with the short, sweet and concise notes. It is based on PCI syllabus and is meant for B. Pharm. Second Semester...
Biological oxidation (part - III) Oxidative PhosphorylationAshok Katta
Biological oxidation (part - III) Oxidative Phosphorylation
- Mechanism of Oxidative Phosphorylation
-- Chemiosmotic theory
-P:O Ratio
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
Shuttle Systems for Oxidation of Extramitochondrial NADH
Coenzyme - Introduction, Definition, Examples for coenzyme, reaction catalysed by coenzyme, Types of coenzymes - cosubstrate and prosthetic group coenzymes, second type of classification of coenzyme- hydrogen group transfer , other than hydrogen group transfer.
Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine ...
This presentation was prepared in order to take Lecture of students in a summarised way and to provide them with the short, sweet and concise notes. It is based on PCI syllabus and is meant for B. Pharm. Second Semester...
Biological oxidation (part - III) Oxidative PhosphorylationAshok Katta
Biological oxidation (part - III) Oxidative Phosphorylation
- Mechanism of Oxidative Phosphorylation
-- Chemiosmotic theory
-P:O Ratio
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
Shuttle Systems for Oxidation of Extramitochondrial NADH
Coenzyme - Introduction, Definition, Examples for coenzyme, reaction catalysed by coenzyme, Types of coenzymes - cosubstrate and prosthetic group coenzymes, second type of classification of coenzyme- hydrogen group transfer , other than hydrogen group transfer.
An in depth explanation of aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration including the calculation of ATP's per stage on cellular respiration (Aerobic).
(source: Facweb.northseattle.edu. Lecture 9-Cellular
Respiration.http://facweb.northseattle.edu/lizthomas/Lecture%209.pdf. Accessed 1 January 2019.)
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
2. Metabolism:
• Metabolism: refers to the entire
network of chemical processes
involved in maintaining life.
• Energy metabolism: the ways that the
body obtains and spends energy from
food.
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
3. • Anabolism: The building of compounds from
small molecules into larger ones. Energy is
used for this process to take place.
• Catabolism: The breakdown of molecules
into smaller units. Energy is released in this
process.
– Ex: Glucose catabolism results in the release of
CO2 and H2O
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
4. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate):
• The main energy source of cells.
• Used for muscular contractions,
enzyme activity, etc.
• Catabolism results in the production of
many ATP molecules: energy.
• Used by the body when energy is
needed.
• Hydrolysis breaks the bonds in ATP,
thus releasing energy.
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
5. Metabolic Efficiency:
• Food energy is converted to ATP with
approximately 50% efficiency.
• The other 50% is released as heat.
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
6. The Cell:
Q: Approximately how many cells does
the human body contain?
A: 1x1014 cells or
100,000,000,000,000. (100 trillion cells)
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
7. The Cell:
• The site for metabolic activity.
• Liver cells are the most metabolically
active.
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
8. How is energy produced?
Three stages:
1. Proteins, Carbohydrates and Fats are
broken down during digestion and
absorption into smaller units: AAs,
monosaccharides and fatty acids.
2. These smaller compounds are further
broken down into 2-carbon
compounds.
3. Compounds are degraded into CO2
and H20.
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
9. Helpers in reactions:
• Enzymes: proteins that facilitate
chemical reactions without being
changed in the process; protein
catalysts.
• Coenzymes: assist enzymes in their
activities.
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
10. Breakdown of nutrients for energy:
1. Glucose breakdown
2. Glycerol and Fatty Acid breakdown
3. Amino Acid breakdown
Fats
Carbohydrates Common Pathway Energy
in
r ote
P
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
11. 1. Glucose breakdown
Glycolysis: A reaction in which glucose is
degraded to pyruvate; net profit: 2 ATP.
An anaerobic pathway.
Glucose
2 ATP
Pyruvate
Less oxygen available Oxygen available
Lactic Acid Acetyl CoA
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
12. The path from Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA is NOT reversible.
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
14. 2. Glycerol and Fatty Acid breakdown
Triglycerides are broken into:
Glycerol and Fatty Acids (lipolysis).
Glucose
Glycerol
Pyruvate
Fatty acids
Acetyl CoA
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
15. 3. Amino Acid breakdown
Glucose
Amino Acids
Pyruvate
Amino Acids
Acetyl CoA
Amino Acids
TCA Cycle
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
16. 3. Amino Acid breakdown (cont.)
• Deamination: AA Keto acid and Ammonia
• Transamination
• Ammonia Urea in the Liver
• Urea excreted via the kidneys
• Water needed for urea excretion
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
17. The TCA Cycle:
• Functions to convert Acetyl CoA to CO2
and to produce energy.
• Oxaloacetate combines with Acetyl
CoA to begin the cycle.
• The result: produces potential ATP
(energy).
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
18. The Electron Transport Chain:
• The primary site for ATP (energy) synthesis.
• Uses Oxygen to convert products of the TCA
cycle into energy.
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
19. Why is fat higher in energy?
•Fat’s carbon-hydrogen bonds can be easily oxidized, yieldin
energy (ATP).
•1 glucose molecule yields 38 ATP when oxidized.
•1 fatty-acid (16-C) will yield 129 ATP when oxidized.
Metabolism: FON 241; L. Zienkewicz
Editor's Notes
When a bond is broken, as in the case of a glucose molecule being broken into CO2 and H2O during catabolism, energy is released in the process. Some of this energy is trapped for cell use, and the rest is lost as heat. Bonds within the ATP molecule, contain a high amount of energy. When energy is needed in the body, these bonds are broken, which splits of a phosphate group. Energy is released that can aid in anabolic reactions.
Glucose is degraded into pyruvate with the end result being ATP. A cell can take pyruvate and make glucose… a reversed process. But, this requires energy. Degrading glucose into pyruvate requires a tiny amount of energy, but the energy it gains from the reaction is much larger. Compounds that can be converted to pyruvate can be used to make glucose. If the cell needs energy and oxygen is available, pyruvate is degraded into Acetyl CoA If energy is not needed in the body, acetyl COA will be used to make fatty acids… increases the fat stores. If less oxygen is available, the pyruvate is converted to lactic acid.This is an anaerobic reaction that occurs during high-intensity exercise. This occurs when physical activity exceeds the rate at which the heart and lungs can deliver oxygen to and clear CO2 from the muscles. This lactic acid can be converted by the liver to glucose in a recycling process called the Cori cycle.
Page 211 in your text book.
Glycerol is easily converted to a 3-carbon compound that can be converted to pyruvate or can up up the chain to be converted to glucose. Fatty acids cannot be converted to pyruvate. But, they can be converted to acetyl CoA. These fatty acid fragments that are used to make pyruvate cannot be sent back up the chain to make glucose. Thus, fatty acids cannot be used to make glucose. Only 5% of the weight of a triglyceride is glycerol. The rest are fatty acids. So, 95% of the triglyceride molecule cannot be converted into glucose. Glycerol is NOT a viable source of glucose in the body.
If amino acids are consumed in excess or if they are needed for energy, they enter a metabolic pathway. They can be 1. Converted to glucose, 2. Converted to Acetyl CoA or 3. Be sent straight to the TCA cycle. First, the AA’s must be deaminated, meaning they have their Nitrogen group. If the AA are converted to acetyl Coa and energy is not needed, the Acetyl Coa is converted to fatty acids and stored.
Pages 218-219 Deamination: AA’s are broken down, first the nitrogen –containing amino group must be released. This leads to 1. Keto acid and 2. Ammonia Transamination: The liver can use the keto-acids to synthesize nonessential amino acids. In the deamination reactions, ammonia is produced. Remaining ammonia is combined with Co2 to make urea, a much less toxic compound than ammonia. Urea is released into the blood and is removed from the blood by the kidneys for excretion in the urine. The amount of protein ingested is related to the amount of urea that will need to be excreted. If not enough water is consumed in extremely high protein diets, the urea cannot be excreted from the body and will accumulate in the blood.
Also called the Kreb’s cycle, the Citric Acid Cycle. Oxaloacetate is crucial in facilitating the activity of the TCA cycle. It is a carbohydrate intermediate. If Oxaloacetate is deficient, as may be the case in a low carb diet, cells face an energy shortage.
Energy is captured within bonds of the ATP molecules. Proteins serve as carriers within a cell, each carrier receives electrons (down a chain-like process). Little energy is released as heat, most of the energy is stored within the bonds of the ATP.
Text page 221. Fat has many C-H bonds, making oxidation abundant. Glucose molecules have some O already bound to the C bonds. Thus, not much is there for oxidation to take place. Thus, much more energy can be released from fat, making it the ideal energy storage form.