Enzymatic bioconversions
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This document discusses enzymatic bioconversions of carbohydrates and fermentable sugars. It describes how starch is made up of glucose molecules linked together and requires enzymes like amylases to break it down into fermentable sugars. Alpha-amylases randomly break starch into dextrins while beta-amylases break off maltose from chain ends. Glucoamylases break off single glucose molecules. Pullulanase aids amylases by breaking branches in amylopectin. Cellulases and lipases also help release starch. Gelatinization disrupts starch granule structure allowing enzyme access. Complete solubilization requires heating to over 105°C. Iodine testing indicates starch
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Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a primary energy source. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their structure. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides include glycogen, starch, and cellulose. Glycogen functions as energy storage in animals, while cellulose provides structure to plant cell walls. Carbohydrates play important structural and functional roles throughout biology.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates : carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis. A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (CH2O)n. Simple carbohydrates are also known as "Sugars" or "Saccharides".
Depending upon the composition and complexity, carbohydrates are divided into four groups:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides: are simplest sugars, or the compounds which possess a free aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O) group and two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. They are simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed further into smaller units. Examples of monosaccharides include:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose
Disaccharides: Those sugars which yield two molecules of the same or different molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis are called Disaccharides. Three most common disaccharides of biological importance are:
1. Maltose
2. Lactose
3. Sucrose
Oligosaccharides: are compound sugars that yield more than two and less than ten molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Depending upon the number of monosaccharides units present in them oligosaccharides can be classified as Trisaccharides, Tetrasaccharides, Pentasaccharides and so on.
Polysaccharides: polysaccharides are polymers containing ten or more monosaccharides units attached together. Polysaccharides are also known as Glycans. Polysaccharides are further classified into:
1. Homopolysaccharides: are also known as homoglycans. Homopolysaccharides are polymer of same monosaccharide units. Example includes:
1. Starch
2. Glycogen
3. Cellulose
4. Inulin
5. Dextrin
6. Dextran
7. Chitin
Heteropolysaccharides: heteropolysaccharides are polysaccharides that contains different types of monosaccharides. Heteropolysaccharides can be classified as: GAG, AGAR, AGAROSE, PECTIN.
carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as an important energy source. They include sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and starches/fibers (polysaccharides). Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further, while disaccharides like sucrose break down into two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides provide structure or store energy and break down into many monosaccharides. Carbohydrates are found widely in plants and are produced through photosynthesis. They are classified based on their structure and whether they are digestible or provide structure. Identification tests can determine the type of unknown carbohydrate sample.
Biochemistry lecture notes carbohydrates
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their main biological functions. It then discusses the three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. For each class, key examples are provided and their structures and properties are explained. The document also covers topics like stereochemistry of carbohydrates, glycosaminoglycans, and important monosaccharides and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. In summary, it serves as a comprehensive overview of carbohydrate structure, classification, and functions in biological systems.
food mactomolecule
The document discusses the macromolecules that are essential for life, focusing on carbohydrates. It defines carbohydrates as large, complex molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides (simple sugars like glucose), disaccharides (double sugars formed when two monosaccharides bond like sucrose), and polysaccharides (long chains of monosaccharides like starch, glycogen, and cellulose). Starch is used by plants for energy storage while cellulose provides structure in plant cell walls. Glycogen serves a similar energy storage role for animals in the liver and muscles. Together these carbohydrate forms provide fuel for life processes.
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Biological molecules (Carbohydrates and Lipids) water and Proteins Recap-AS B...
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specific immunity - Immunology & Immunotechnology
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules display antigen peptides on the cell surface to be recognized by T cells, and MHC genes are a major genetic contributor to autoimmune diseases. MHC genes are highly polymorphic, expressed from both alleles, and mediate antigen presentation and interactions between immune cells. T cell receptors recognize antigen peptides presented by MHC to activate T cells and induce adaptive immune responses, including cell-mediated immunity which destroys intracellular pathogens. The five classes of antibodies - IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE - vary in structure and function, with IgG being most prevalent and IgA protecting mucosal surfaces.
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This document discusses three types of sealing technologies used in pumps: stuffing box bush seals, mechanical seals, and magnetic drives. Stuffing box bush seals use packing material that needs periodic adjustment. Mechanical seals have no contact between the stationary and rotating parts but require precise manufacturing. Magnetic drives avoid physical contact through the use of magnets to transmit rotational force.
Downstream processing
The document discusses various downstream processing techniques used after fermentation or cell culture including solid-liquid separation methods like filtration, centrifugation, and flocculation. It also covers cell disruption methods, concentration techniques like evaporation and membrane filtration, purification chromatography methods, and final product formulation and drying. The goal of these downstream processing steps is to recover and purify intracellular products released from cells.
Hydrolysed protein
Hydrolysed protein is a solution derived from hydrolyzing proteins into amino acids and peptides, commonly through prolonged heating with hydrochloric acid or enzymes. The process breaks peptide bonds in protein chains to generate smaller, more usable fragments. First, raw materials like whey or casein are selected and mixed with water. Enzymes are then added to hydrolyze the proteins. The solution is filtered, concentrated, spray dried, and packaged. Hydrolysed protein is used in foods as a flavor enhancer and in infant formulas and pet foods to modify allergenic properties. It provides a rich amino acid pool that can be immediately used by the body.
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This document discusses cheese making and the role of enzymes like protease. It begins by defining cheese and explaining the cheese making process, which involves curdling milk through acidification and coagulation. Key steps include draining, salting, molding, and ripening. Protease enzymes are added to milk to hydrolyze casein proteins and allow coagulation. Other food processing enzymes discussed are catalase, lactases, amylases and lipase. Specific details are provided about the roles of these enzymes. References are included at the end.
Pickling
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Microbial food processed waste
This document discusses the conversion of various food processing wastes into useful products. It describes how liquid wastes containing sugars, starches, proteins and fats and solid cellulosic wastes can be converted through microbial or enzymatic processes. Specifically, it discusses how whey, molasses and starch wastes can be utilized. Whey protein can be isolated from whey and used for infant formula, body building, and pharmaceuticals. Molasses contains sugars that can be used to produce valuable products like ethanol, citric acid, and lactic acid. Starch wastes can produce amylase enzymes as well as lactic acid, ethanol, hydrogen and other products. The document concludes by describing a process to efficiently convert
High fructose corn syrub and down stream processing
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Bacteriocins from lactic acid bacteria
This document discusses bacteriocins, which are toxic proteins produced by bacterial strains that kill other bacteria but not the producing strain. It defines bacteriocins and explains they range in size from less than 10kD to greater than 10kD. Bacteriocins are classified based on their mode of production, killing mechanism, genetic material, and presence of modifications. Lactic acid bacteria like Lactococcus and Lactobacillus produce several bacteriocins. The document outlines methods for isolating and purifying bacteriocins from milk and describes their applications.
Mechanism of enzyme and function in food processing
This document discusses the various microbial enzymes that are used in food industries and their applications. It outlines several key enzymes (amylase, protease, cellulases, lactase, etc.) and describes their functions. For example, it notes that alpha-amylases are used in baking, brewing and as digestive aids. Proteases are used to improve food flavors and textures. Lactase is used to reduce lactose in dairy products. Overall, the document provides an overview of the major microbial enzymes and their roles in food processing.
Fermentation as a method of preparing and preserving food
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Anti-Universe And Emergent Gravity and the Dark Universe
Recent theoretical progress indicates that spacetime and gravity emerge together from the entanglement structure of an underlying microscopic theory. These ideas are best understood in Anti-de Sitter space, where they rely on the area law for entanglement entropy. The extension to de Sitter space requires taking into account the entropy and temperature associated with the cosmological horizon. Using insights from string theory, black hole physics and quantum information theory we argue that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal volume law contribution to the entropy that overtakes the area law precisely at the cosmological horizon. Due to the competition between area and volume law entanglement the microscopic de Sitter states do not thermalise at sub-Hubble scales: they exhibit memory effects in the form of an entropy displacement caused by matter. The emergent laws of gravity contain an additional ‘dark’ gravitational force describing the ‘elastic’ response due to the entropy displacement. We derive an estimate of the strength of this extra force in terms of the baryonic mass, Newton’s constant and the Hubble acceleration scale a0 = cH0, and provide evidence for the fact that this additional ‘dark gravity force’ explains the observed phenomena in galaxies and clusters currently attributed to dark matter.
The cost of acquiring information by natural selection
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
JAMES WEBB STUDY THE MASSIVE BLACK HOLE SEEDS
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Microbial interaction
Microorganisms interacts with each other and can be physically associated with another organisms in a variety of ways.
One organism can be located on the surface of another organism as an ectobiont or located within another organism as endobiont.
Microbial interaction may be positive such as mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism or may be negative such as parasitism, predation or competition
Types of microbial interaction
Positive interaction: mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism
Negative interaction: Ammensalism (antagonism), parasitism, predation, competition
I. Mutualism:
It is defined as the relationship in which each organism in interaction gets benefits from association. It is an obligatory relationship in which mutualist and host are metabolically dependent on each other.
Mutualistic relationship is very specific where one member of association cannot be replaced by another species.
Mutualism require close physical contact between interacting organisms.
Relationship of mutualism allows organisms to exist in habitat that could not occupied by either species alone.
Mutualistic relationship between organisms allows them to act as a single organism.
Examples of mutualism:
i. Lichens:
Lichens are excellent example of mutualism.
They are the association of specific fungi and certain genus of algae. In lichen, fungal partner is called mycobiont and algal partner is called
II. Syntrophism:
It is an association in which the growth of one organism either depends on or improved by the substrate provided by another organism.
In syntrophism both organism in association gets benefits.
Compound A
Utilized by population 1
Compound B
Utilized by population 2
Compound C
utilized by both Population 1+2
Products
In this theoretical example of syntrophism, population 1 is able to utilize and metabolize compound A, forming compound B but cannot metabolize beyond compound B without co-operation of population 2. Population 2is unable to utilize compound A but it can metabolize compound B forming compound C. Then both population 1 and 2 are able to carry out metabolic reaction which leads to formation of end product that neither population could produce alone.
Examples of syntrophism:
i. Methanogenic ecosystem in sludge digester
Methane produced by methanogenic bacteria depends upon interspecies hydrogen transfer by other fermentative bacteria.
Anaerobic fermentative bacteria generate CO2 and H2 utilizing carbohydrates which is then utilized by methanogenic bacteria (Methanobacter) to produce methane.
ii. Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis:
In the minimal media, Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis are able to grow together but not alone.
The synergistic relationship between E. faecalis and L. arobinosus occurs in which E. faecalis require folic acid
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Speaker: Diego Blas (IFAE/ICREA)
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When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
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The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defects
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
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Wereport the study of a huge optical intraday flare on 2021 November 12 at 2 a.m. UT in the blazar OJ287. In the binary black hole model, it is associated with an impact of the secondary black hole on the accretion disk of the primary. Our multifrequency observing campaign was set up to search for such a signature of the impact based on a prediction made 8 yr earlier. The first I-band results of the flare have already been reported by Kishore et al. (2024). Here we combine these data with our monitoring in the R-band. There is a big change in the R–I spectral index by 1.0 ±0.1 between the normal background and the flare, suggesting a new component of radiation. The polarization variation during the rise of the flare suggests the same. The limits on the source size place it most reasonably in the jet of the secondary BH. We then ask why we have not seen this phenomenon before. We show that OJ287 was never before observed with sufficient sensitivity on the night when the flare should have happened according to the binary model. We also study the probability that this flare is just an oversized example of intraday variability using the Krakow data set of intense monitoring between 2015 and 2023. We find that the occurrence of a flare of this size and rapidity is unlikely. In machine-readable Tables 1 and 2, we give the full orbit-linked historical light curve of OJ287 as well as the dense monitoring sample of Krakow.
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Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
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Enzymatic bioconversions
- 1. Enzymatic Bioconversions Eg. Starch and sugar conversion processes Submitted by : S. Akshaya Gayathri Class : II MSc., Biotechnology College : Bon Secours College for Women
- 2. Carbohydrates and Fermentable Sugars Carbohydrates, or “hydrates of carbon,” are an important group of naturally occurring organic compounds. Commonly these are formed by green plants through photosynthesis Carbohydrates are any of the various compounds comprised of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, general formula Cx(H20)y Carbohydrates are used to store energy until required by the organism – Sugars, starches, cellulose, glycogen and related substances Saccharides, the simplest form of carbohydrates, consist of single sugar units with five or six carbon atoms in ring form– They are commonly called “sugars” or “sweeteners’’
- 3. Starch and cellulosic compounds are polymeric molecules: • Made up of basic unit called monomers • These monomers are joined together by a chemical bond called a • glycosidic link Carbohydrates can be divided into four basic classes: Monosaccharides Diasaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides Each of these comprises of successively more of the same basic unit or units
- 5. Monosaccharides: Glucose and Fructose Can be fermented to ethanol by yeast, only under anaerobic Conditions. Diasaccharides: Sucrose and Maltose Sucrose is fructose and glucose molecule linked together Sucrose is obtained from sugar cane and sugar beets Commonly known as table sugar Maltose comprises of two molecules of glucose linked together Both maltose and sucrose are fermentable to ethanol by yeast
- 6. Oligosaccharides Are saccharides with more than three but less than eight units. Oligosaccharides can not be fermented by yeast to produce ethanol. Polysaccharides Polymeric carbohydrates of many thousand of monomeric sugar units linked together through glycosidic linkages. Starch, glycogen or cellulose. Neither starch or cellulose can be directly fermented by yeast to produce ethanol. Must be hydrolyzed to fermentable sugars.
- 8. Enzymes that convert starch to sugar • Starch conversion enzymes convert the starch in grist to flavor components and fermentable sugars. Starch is glucose molecules linked together in a linear polymer (amylose) or a branched polymer (amylopectin). Several key enzyme groups, primarily amylases, take part in the conversion of grain starches. • Alpha- amylases: they rapidly but randomly break starch molecules starch molecules to produce water-soluble fragments of starch called dextrins – unfermentable carbohydrates that contribute to beer flavor, body, and mouthfeel • Beta- amylases: these act only at the ends of starch molecules and fragments to produce maltose. • Glucoamylases: break off single molecules of glucose from starch molecules, dextrins and maltose. • The bonds that form branches in amylopectin polymer starch are resistant to the action of amylase enzymes. • Pullulanase: it is a starch-debranching enzyme, can break these bonds and give amylase enzymes faster access to starch molecules • Cellulase and Lipase: break down cell walls and lipid inclusion complexes to release starch for conversion.
- 10. STARCH STRUCTURE Crystallinity • Packing of amylose and amylopectin within starch granule is not random but is very organized. • Prevents enzymes to breakdown starch granule. • Can be disrupted by gelatinization of starch.
- 11. GELATINIZATION • Starch gelatinization is a process of breaking down the intermolecular bonds of starch molecules in the presence of water and heat, allowing the hydrogen sites (the hydroxyl hydrogen and oxygen) to engage more water. • This irreversibly dissolves the starch granule in water.
- 12. Blue Iodine Colour: When Iodine complexes with starch, it forms a color complex which is different for amylose and amylopectin The goal of the system and enzyme are to solubilize and lower all the starch in the grain—indicated by an amber to yellow iodine test color.
- 13. SOLUBLIZATION OF STARCH Even at 95°C not all of the starch gets solubilized (pasted or gelatinized). Needs to be cooked for 5 minutes at 110°C to completely solubilize starch. Pasting or gelatinization temperature starts at 60°C, but is not complete until > 105°C.
- 14. Iodine Color – Facts: • Different chain lengths = different colors • All color changes occur between Dp12 & Dp45 • Six glucose units are required per iodine • Retrogradation occurs with Dp150 - Dp200 oligosaccharides.