genetic engineering: Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using biotechnology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. Many organism are manipulated with the help genetic engineering useful for mankind.
genetic engineering: Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using biotechnology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. Many organism are manipulated with the help genetic engineering useful for mankind.
This is one of the major chapters for the examination NEET. A few questions are expected from this chapter and carry more weight as per the NEET syllabus.
Study of cloning vectors and recombinant dna technologySteffi Thomas
Study of cloning vectors, restriction endonuclease and DNA ligase, Recombinant DNA technology, Application of genetic engineering in medicine, Application of rDNA technology and genetic engineering in the production of interferons, Vaccines-hepatitis-B, Hormones-Insulin, Brief introduction to PCR
This is one of the major chapters for the examination NEET. A few questions are expected from this chapter and carry more weight as per the NEET syllabus.
Study of cloning vectors and recombinant dna technologySteffi Thomas
Study of cloning vectors, restriction endonuclease and DNA ligase, Recombinant DNA technology, Application of genetic engineering in medicine, Application of rDNA technology and genetic engineering in the production of interferons, Vaccines-hepatitis-B, Hormones-Insulin, Brief introduction to PCR
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
2. RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
● A technique mainly used to change the phenotype of an organism (host) when a genetically altered vector is
introduced and integrated into the genome of the organism. So, basically, this process involves the introduction
of a foreign piece of DNA structure into the genome which contains our gene of interest. This gene which is
introduced is the recombinant gene and the technique is called the recombinant DNA technology.
● The technology used for producing artificial DNA through the combination of different genetic materials (DNA)
from different sources is referred to as Recombinant DNA Technology. Recombinant DNA technology is
popularly known as genetic engineering.
● The recombinant DNA technology emerged with the discovery of restriction enzymes in the year 1968 by Swiss
microbiologist Werner Arber.
● This process involves the introduction of a foreign piece of DNA structure into the genome which contains our
gene of interest. This gene which is introduced is the recombinant gene and the technique is called the
recombinant DNA technology.
3. MINIMALIST AESTHETIC SLIDESHOW INFOGRAPHICS
STEP-1
Isolation Of Genetic
Material
STEP-3
Amplifying The Gene
Copies Through PCR
STEP-5
Insertion Of RDNA Into Host
STEP-2 Cutting The Genes At
The Recognition Sites
STEP-4 Ligation Of The DNA
Molecules
4. Step-1. Isolation of Genetic Material.
The first and the initial step in Recombinant DNA technology is to isolate the desired DNA in its pure form i.e. free
from other macromolecules.
Step-2.Cutting the gene at the recognition sites.
The restriction enzymes play a major role in determining the location at which the desired gene is inserted into the
vector genome. These reactions are called ‘restriction enzyme digestions’.
Step-3. Amplifying the gene copies through Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
It is a process to amplify a single copy of DNA into thousands to millions of copies once the proper gene of
interest has been cut using restriction enzymes.
Step-4. Ligation of DNA Molecules.
In this step of Ligation, the joining of the two pieces – a cut fragment of DNA and the vector together with the help
of the enzyme DNA ligase.
Step-5. Insertion of Recombinant DNA Into Host.
In this step, the recombinant DNA is introduced into a recipient host cell. This process is termed
as Transformation. Once the recombinant DNA is inserted into the host cell, it gets multiplied and is expressed in
the form of the manufactured protein under optimal conditions.
7. DNA LIGASE
• DNA ligase is isolated from E.coli and Bacteriophage commercially and used in
recombinant DNA technology.
• The enzyme DNA ligase joins the DNA fragments with cloning vector.
8. REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE
• It is also called RNA-directed DNA polymerase, an enzyme encoded from the genetic material
of retroviruses that catalyzes the transcription of retrovirus RNA (ribonucleic acid)
into DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). This catalyzed transcription is the reverse process of normal
cellular transcription of DNA into RNA, hence the names reverse transcriptase and retrovirus.
Reverse transcriptase is central to the infectious nature of retroviruses, several of which cause
disease in humans, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
• Reverse transcriptase is also a fundamental component of a laboratory technology known
as reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), a powerful tool used in research
and in the diagnosis of diseases such as cancer.
9. RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASE
• Endonucleases can recognize specific base sequence (restriction site) within DNA or RNA molecule and
cleave internal phosphodiester bonds within a DNA molecule. Example: EcoRI, Hind III, BamHI etc.
• These enzyme is isolated from wide variety of microorganisms. Endonuclease enzyme degrades foreign
genome when enter inside microbial cell but the host cell own DNA is protected from its endonuclease by
methylation of bases at restriction site.
There are 3 types of restriction endonuclease:
1. Type I Restriction endonuclease:
It has both methylation and endonuclease activity.
It require ATP to cut the DNA
It cuts DNA about 1000bp away from its restriction site
eg. EcoKI
2. Type II Restriction endonuclease:
It does not require ATP to cut DNA
It cuts DNA at restriction site itself
eg. EcoRI, Hind III
3. Type III Restriction endonuclease:
It requires ATP to cut DNA
It cuts DNA about 25bp away from restriction site.
eg. EcoPI
10. Property Type I RE Type II RE Type III RE
Abundance Less common than
Type II
Most common Rare
Recognition site Cut both strands at
a non- specific
location > 1000 bp
away from
recognition site
Cut both strands at
a specific, usually
palindromic
recognition site (4-
8 bp)
Cleavage of one
strand, only 24-26
bp downstream of
the 3´ recognition
site
Restriction and
modification
Single
multifunctional
enzyme
Separate nuclease
and methylase
Separate enzymes
sharing a common
subunit
DNA cleavage
requirements
Two recognition
sites in any
orientation
Single recognition
site
Two recognition
sites in a head-to-
head orientation
11. TERMINAL TRANSCRIPTASE
• It is the enzyme that converts blunt end of DNA fragments into sticky end.
• If the restriction enzyme cuts DNA forming blunt ends, then efficiency of ligation is very low. So the
enzyme terminal transferase converts bunt end into sticky end.
• Terminal transferase enzyme synthesize short sequence of complementary nucleotide at free ends of
DNA, so that blunt end is converted into sticky end.
12. NUCLEASE
• The enzyme nucleases hydrolyses the phosphodiester bond on DNA
strand creating 3’-OH group and 5’-P group.
• It usually cut DNA on either side of distortion caused by thymine dimers or
intercalating agents
• The gap is filled by DNA polymerase and strand is joined by DNA ligase
• Nucelase are of two types; endonuclease and exonuclease
13. DNA POLYMERASE
• DNA polymerase is a complex enzyme which synthesize nucleotide
complementary to template strand.
• It adds nucleotide to free 3′ OH end and help in elongation of strand
• It also helps to fill gap in double stranded DNA.
• DNA polymerase-I isolated from E. coli is commonly used in gene cloning
• Taq polymerase isolated from Thermus aquaticus is used in PCR
14. RIBONUCLEASE –H [RNASE H]
• Reverse transcriptases are enzymes composed of distinct domains that exhibit different
biochemical activities. RNA-dependent DNA polymerase activity and RNase H activity are the
predominant functions of reverse transcriptases, although depending on the source
organisms there are variations in functions, including, for example, DNA-dependent DNA
polymerase activity.
• RNase H cleaves the RNA template of the RNA:cDNA hybrid concurrently with
polymerization.The RNase H activity is undesirable for synthesis of long cDNAs because the
RNA template may be degraded before completion of full-length reverse transcription. The
RNase H activity may also lower reverse transcription efficiency, presumably due to its
competition with the polymerase activity of the enzyme.
15.
16. ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE
• The enzyme Alkaline phosphatase helps in removal of terminal phosphate group from 5′ end
• It prevents self annealing of vector DNA soon after cut open by restriction endonuclease