Enteric Fever, Typhoid, Fever common cause
Long Question as well as Short Note
MCQ topic
MUHS ,RGUHS,SDUHS and autonomous schools
Must read for all UG students
Tetanus, Lock Jaw, Opisthotonus, Tetanus Immunoglobulins, Immunization, Cephalic Tetanus. A much feared topic among residents explained in a simple way.
Polio: flaccid paralysis, major and minor
disease, fecal-oral
Coxsackievirus A: vesicular diseases,
meningitis; coxsackievirus B (body):
pleurodynia, myocarditis
Other echovirus and enteroviruses: like
coxsackievirus
Rhinoviruses: common cold, acid labile, does
not replicate above 33° C
Biology, Virulence, and Disease
• Small size, icosahedral capsid, positive RNA
genome with terminal protein
• Genome is sufficient for infection
• Encodes RNA-dependent RNA polymerase,
replicates in cytoplasm
Enteroviruses
• Capsid virus resistant to inactivation
• Disease due to lytic infection of important
target tissue
• Polio: cytolytic infection of motor neurons of
anterior horn and brainstem, paralysis
• Coxsackievirus A: herpangina, hand-foot-
and-mouth disease, common cold,
meningitis
• Coxsackievirus B: pleurodynia, neonatal
myocarditis, type 1 diabetes
Rhinoviruses
• Acid labile and cannot replicate at body
temperature
• Restricted to upper respiratory tract
• Common cold
Epidemiology
• Enteroviruses transmitted by fecal-oral route
and aerosols
• Rhinoviruses transmitted by aerosols and
contact
Diagnosis
• Immune assays (ELISA) or RT-PCR genome
analysis of blood, CSF, or other relevant
sample
Treatment, Prevention, and Control
• OPV and IPV polio vaccines
P
icornaviridae is one of the largest families of viruses and
includes some of the most important human and animal
viruses (Box 46-1). As the name indicates, these viruses are
small (pico) ribonucleic acid (RNA) viruses that have a
naked capsid structure. The family has more than 230
members divided into nine genera, including Enterovirus,
Rhinovirus, Hepatovirus (hepatitis A virus; discussed in
Chapter 55), Cardiovirus, and Aphthovirus. The enterovi-
ruses are distinguished from the rhinoviruses by the stabil-
ity of the capsid at pH 3, the optimum temperature
for growth, the mode of transmission, and their diseases
Tetanus, Lock Jaw, Opisthotonus, Tetanus Immunoglobulins, Immunization, Cephalic Tetanus. A much feared topic among residents explained in a simple way.
Polio: flaccid paralysis, major and minor
disease, fecal-oral
Coxsackievirus A: vesicular diseases,
meningitis; coxsackievirus B (body):
pleurodynia, myocarditis
Other echovirus and enteroviruses: like
coxsackievirus
Rhinoviruses: common cold, acid labile, does
not replicate above 33° C
Biology, Virulence, and Disease
• Small size, icosahedral capsid, positive RNA
genome with terminal protein
• Genome is sufficient for infection
• Encodes RNA-dependent RNA polymerase,
replicates in cytoplasm
Enteroviruses
• Capsid virus resistant to inactivation
• Disease due to lytic infection of important
target tissue
• Polio: cytolytic infection of motor neurons of
anterior horn and brainstem, paralysis
• Coxsackievirus A: herpangina, hand-foot-
and-mouth disease, common cold,
meningitis
• Coxsackievirus B: pleurodynia, neonatal
myocarditis, type 1 diabetes
Rhinoviruses
• Acid labile and cannot replicate at body
temperature
• Restricted to upper respiratory tract
• Common cold
Epidemiology
• Enteroviruses transmitted by fecal-oral route
and aerosols
• Rhinoviruses transmitted by aerosols and
contact
Diagnosis
• Immune assays (ELISA) or RT-PCR genome
analysis of blood, CSF, or other relevant
sample
Treatment, Prevention, and Control
• OPV and IPV polio vaccines
P
icornaviridae is one of the largest families of viruses and
includes some of the most important human and animal
viruses (Box 46-1). As the name indicates, these viruses are
small (pico) ribonucleic acid (RNA) viruses that have a
naked capsid structure. The family has more than 230
members divided into nine genera, including Enterovirus,
Rhinovirus, Hepatovirus (hepatitis A virus; discussed in
Chapter 55), Cardiovirus, and Aphthovirus. The enterovi-
ruses are distinguished from the rhinoviruses by the stabil-
ity of the capsid at pH 3, the optimum temperature
for growth, the mode of transmission, and their diseases
Shigellosis = inflammation of intestines (especially the colon) with accompanying severe abdominal cramps, tenesmus and frequent, low-volume stools containing blood, mucus and fecal leukocytes.
Leptospirosis is a worldwide public health problem. In humid tropical and subtropical areas, where most developing
countries are found, it is a greater problem than in those with a temperate climate. The magnitude of the problem in
tropical and subtropical regions can be largely attributed to climatic and environmental conditions but also to the
great likelihood of contact with a Leptospira-contaminated environment caused by, for example, local agricultural
practices and poor housing and waste disposal, all of which give rise to many sources of infection. In countries with
temperate climates, in addition to locally acquired leptospirosis, the disease may also be acquired by travellers
abroad, and particularly by those visiting the tropics.
Leptospirosis is a potentially serious but treatable disease. Its symptoms may mimic those of a number of other
unrelated infections such as influenza, meningitis, hepatitis, dengue or viral haemorrhagic fevers. Some of these
infections, in particular dengue, may give rise to large epidemics, and cases of leptospirosis that occur during such
epidemics may be overlooked. For this reason, it is important to distinguish leptospirosis from dengue and viral
haemorrhagic fevers, etc. in patients acquiring infections in countries where these diseases are endemic. At present,
this is still difficult, but new developments may reduce the technical problems in the near future. It is necessary,
therefore, to increase awareness and knowledge of leptospirosis as a public health threat.
Tick bites and Lyme disease: history and best practice for reducing risk of i...Edward Wilson
This presentation was given at workshop titled "Ticks: You and Your Livelihood" organised by the Cairngorm National Park Authority at Lonach Hall, Strathdon, Scotland on 18 November 2015. The presentation provides an overview of the biology and ecology of Lyme disease, and discusses ways of reducing risk for professional land managers working in areas with high densities of infected ticks. The focus is on raising awareness, self-checking and methods of avoiding infection.
Shigellosis = inflammation of intestines (especially the colon) with accompanying severe abdominal cramps, tenesmus and frequent, low-volume stools containing blood, mucus and fecal leukocytes.
Leptospirosis is a worldwide public health problem. In humid tropical and subtropical areas, where most developing
countries are found, it is a greater problem than in those with a temperate climate. The magnitude of the problem in
tropical and subtropical regions can be largely attributed to climatic and environmental conditions but also to the
great likelihood of contact with a Leptospira-contaminated environment caused by, for example, local agricultural
practices and poor housing and waste disposal, all of which give rise to many sources of infection. In countries with
temperate climates, in addition to locally acquired leptospirosis, the disease may also be acquired by travellers
abroad, and particularly by those visiting the tropics.
Leptospirosis is a potentially serious but treatable disease. Its symptoms may mimic those of a number of other
unrelated infections such as influenza, meningitis, hepatitis, dengue or viral haemorrhagic fevers. Some of these
infections, in particular dengue, may give rise to large epidemics, and cases of leptospirosis that occur during such
epidemics may be overlooked. For this reason, it is important to distinguish leptospirosis from dengue and viral
haemorrhagic fevers, etc. in patients acquiring infections in countries where these diseases are endemic. At present,
this is still difficult, but new developments may reduce the technical problems in the near future. It is necessary,
therefore, to increase awareness and knowledge of leptospirosis as a public health threat.
Tick bites and Lyme disease: history and best practice for reducing risk of i...Edward Wilson
This presentation was given at workshop titled "Ticks: You and Your Livelihood" organised by the Cairngorm National Park Authority at Lonach Hall, Strathdon, Scotland on 18 November 2015. The presentation provides an overview of the biology and ecology of Lyme disease, and discusses ways of reducing risk for professional land managers working in areas with high densities of infected ticks. The focus is on raising awareness, self-checking and methods of avoiding infection.
Typhoid, also known as Typhoid fever or Typhoid Disease , is a common worldwide
bacterial disease, transmitted by the ingestion of food or water contaminated with the
feces of an infected person, which contain the bacterium Salmonella enterica, serovar
Typhi(fig.1). The bacteria then perforate through the
intestinal wall and are phagocytosed by macrophages.
The organism is a Gram-negative short bacillus that is
motile due to its peritrichous flagella(fig.1). The
bacterium grows best at 37°C / 98.6°F – human body
temperature.
Atypical Presentation of Salmonella Typhi Blood Stream Infection in an Immuno...JapaneseJournalofGas
The genus Salmonella is an important enteric pathogen which carries high morbidity and mortality in many parts of the world [1, 2]. The serotypes of Salmonella enteric namely serovars Typhi, Paratyphi A, Paratyphi B and Paratyphi C are the causative agents of the enteric fever. Other serovars collectively called as Non Typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) mainly cause gastroenteritis
Atypical Presentation of Salmonella Typhi Blood Stream Infection in an Immuno...JohnJulie1
The genus Salmonella is an important enteric pathogen which carries high morbidity and mortality in many parts of the world [1, 2]. The serotypes of Salmonella enteric namely serovars Typhi, Paratyphi A, Paratyphi B and Paratyphi C are the causative agents of the enteric fever. Other serovars collectively called as Non Typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) mainly cause gastroenteritis
Thyroid disorders are common in pregnancy . This is potential treatable cause of bad obstetric history .Hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism both should be screened for clinically as well as by laboratory tests .
Due to availability of Thyroid testing ,it is more easily diagnosed and Treated.
Hypothyroid mother if not adequately treated ,there is poor mental development of the baby.
Due to awareness more and more diagnosis is made .There should be universal screening for thyroidal illness in pregnancy .
Dr Ashutosh Ojha Shiv Narayan Singh memorial oration 2020Dr Ashutosh Ojha
It is the Oration ,I gave at Patna Medical College on Foundation Day Celebration on 24 Feb2020.
Clinical Medicine is not taught much in Medical College and less used in advent of newer Tests .
To Remind The value , I gave this talk in Name of Legendary Physician
common problem faced by medical faternity .
It is a systemic effort made to assess a case and identify sinister signs of illness. draw an outline of management
Approach to bladder symptoms, Innervation of Bladder, Control of Micturition, Bladder Functions, Funtions and synergy of Sphincters and Detrusor, UMN Bladder, LMN Bladder, Pathological Basis of symptoms, Clinical signs in different types of Bladder, Investigations of Bladder disorder, Approach to Treatment of bladder disorders,Clean Intermittent Self Catherterisation, Surgical Treatment of bladder dysfunction
Follow up and Complications
Part 1 of Asthama Lecture for Final Year MBBS students
Definition, Pathophysiology, Pathology, History, Symptoms, Signs , Investigation. also see Part2
Anemia Indian scenario In Chronic Kidney Disease Patients Dr Ashutosh Ojha
this is a comprehensive presentation in Post Doctoral Certificate in Nephrology training program. At Gauhati Medical College Hospital ,Dept Of Nephrology.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
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Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
2. Enteric Fevers
The syndrome associated with enteric fevers are
produced only by a few of the Salmonella
Salmonella typhi most important
Salmonella paratyphi A, B,C
4. Historical landmarks in
Typhoid
In 1880s, the typhoid bacillus was first
observed by Eberth in spleen sections and
mesenteric lymph nodes from a patient who
died from typhoid. Robert Koch confirmed a
related finding by Gaffky and succeeded in
cultivating the bacterium in 1881. But due to
the lack of differential characters, separation
of the typhoid bacillus from other enteric
bacteria was uncertain.
.
5. History of Sero Diagnosis
In 1896, it was demonstrated that the serum from
an animal immunized with the typhoid bacillus
agglutinated (clumped) the typhoid bacterial cells,
and it was shown that the serum of patients
afflicted with typhoid likewise agglutinated the
typhoid bacillus. Serodiagnosis of typhoid was
thus made possible by 1896.
6. Typhoid Mary
A famous example is
“Typhoid” Mary
Mallon, who was a
food handler
responsible for
infecting at least 78
people, killing 5.
These highly
infectious carriers
pose a great risk to
public health.
7. Typhoid Mary
"Typhoid Mary," real name Mary Mallon, worked
as a cook in New York City in the early 1900s.
Public health pioneer Sara Josephine Baker, MD,
PhD tracked her down after discovering that she
was the common link among many people who
had become ill from typhoid fever She was traced
to typhoid outbreaks a second time so she was
put in prison again where she lived until she died.
8. Etiology of Typhoid fever
Typhoid fever is a bacterial disease, caused by
Salmonella typhi. It is transmitted through the
ingestion of food or drink contaminated by the
faeces or urine of infected people.
Para typhoid fevers are produced by other
species named
Paratyphi A, B, C
9. Bacteriology –Typhoid fever
The Genus
Salmonella belong to
Enterobactericiae
Facultative anaerobe
Gram negative bacilli
Distinguished from
other bacteria by
Biochemical and
antigen structure
10. Antigenic structure of
Salmonella
Two sets of antigens
Detection by serotyping
1 Somatic or 0 Antigens contain long chain
polysaccharides ( LPS ) comprises of heat stable
polysaccharide commonly.
2 Flagellar or H Antigens are strongly immunogenic
and induces antibody formation rapidly and in high
titers following infection or immunization. The flagellar
antigen is of a dual nature, occurring in one of the two
phases.
11. Paratyphoid fevers on rise
Paratyphoid fever can be caused by any of three
serotypes of S. paratyphi A, B and C. It is similar
in its symptoms to typhoid fever, but tends to be
milder, with a lower fatality rate.
12. How a Typhoid fever spreads
Salmonella Typhi lives only in humans. Persons
with typhoid fever carry the bacteria in their
bloodstream and intestinal tract. In addition, a
small number of persons, called carriers , recover
from typhoid fever but continue to carry the
bacteria. Both ill persons and carriers shed S.
Typhi in their feces (stool).
13. Clinical features
Typhoid fever (enteric fever) is a septicemia,
illness characterized initially by fever,
bradycardia, splenomegaly, abdominal
symptoms and 'rose spots' which are clusters
of pink mauls on the skin.
Complications such as intestinal hemorrhage
or perforation can develop in untreated
patients or when treatment is delayed.
14. Pathology and Pathogenesis of
Enteric fever
Caused by
S. typhi
S.paratyphi
A B C
The organisms penetrate ileal mucosa reach mesentric
lymph nodes via Lymphatics , Multiply,
Invade Blood stream via thoracic duct
In 7 – 10 days through blood stream infect
Liver, Gall Bladder,, spleen, Kidney, Bone marrow.
After multiplication bacilli pass into blood causing
secondary and heavier bactermia
15. Fever
All the events coincides with Fever and other
signs of clinical illness
From Gall bladder further invasion occurs in
intestines
Involvement of peyr’s patches, gut lymphoid
tissue
Lead to inflammatory reaction, and infiltration
with monocular cells
Leads to Necrosis, Sloughing and formation of
chacterstic typhoid ulcers
16. Clinical presentation
Ingestion to onset of fever varies from 3 – 50
days.(2 weeks )
Insidious start, early symptoms are vague
Dull continuous head ache
Abdominal tenderness discomfort may present
with constipation.
May progress and present with step ladder
pattern temperature
Temperature fall by crisis in 3 – 4th week
18. Rashes in Typhoid
May present with
rash, rose spots 2 -4
mm in diameter raised
discrete irregular
blanching pink
maculae's found in
front of chest
Appear in crops of
upto a dozen at a time
Fade after 3 – 4 days
19. Complication in Typhoid
Severe intestinal hemorrhage and intestinal
perforation
If not diagnosed can lead to fatal complications.
20. Relapse
Apparent recovery can be followed by relapse in
5 – 10 % of untreated patients
On few occasions relapses can be severe and
may be fatal.
22. Morbidity and Mortality
In untreated patients mortality can be up to 20 %
Occasionally present with diarrhea may mimic
other infections, which is particularly common in
paratyphoid fever.
Patient may present as gastro enteritis no
different from that caused by other S.enterica
serotypes.
23. Typhoid carriers
Salmonella enterica causes approximately 16
million cases of typhoid fever worldwide, killing
around 500,000 per year. One in thirty of the
survivors, however, become carriers. In carriers
the bacteria remain hidden inside cells and the
gall bladder, causing new infections as they are
shed from an apparently healthy host.
25. Blood cultures in Typhoid fever
In Adults 5- 10 ml of Blood is collected by
venepuncture inoculated into 50 – 100 ml of Bile
broth ( 0.5 % )
Several other media are available used as per the
availability of medium to suit their laboratory
conditions.
26. Blood Cultures in Typhoid
Fevers
Bacteremia occurs
early in the disease
Blood Cultures are
positive in
1st week in 90%
2nd week in 75%
3rd week in 60%
4th week and later in
25%
27. Identification of Salmonella
Sub cultures are done after overnight incubation
at 370c,and subcultures are done on Mac
Conkey's agar
Subcultures are repeated upto 10 days after
futher incubation.
29. Identifying Enteric Organisms
Isolates which are Non lactose fermenting
Motile, Indole positive
Urease negative
Ferment Glucose,Mannitol,Maltose
Donot ferment Lactose, Sucrose
Typhoid bacilli are anaerogenic
Some of the Paratyphoid form acid and gas
Further identification done by slide
agglutination tests
30. Slide agglutination tests
In slide agglutination
tests a known serum
and unknown culture
isolate is mixed,
clumping occurs
within few minutes
Commercial sera are
available for detection
of A, B,C1,C2,D, and E.
31. Clot culture
Clot cultures are more productive in
yielding better results in isolation.
A blood after clotting, the clot is lysed with
Streptokinase ,but expensive to perform in
developing countries.
32. Bactek and Radiometric based
methods are in recent use
Bactek methods in
isolation of Salmonella
is a rapid and
sensitive method in
early diagnosis of
Enteric fever.
Many Microbiology
Diagnostic
Laboratories are
upgrading to Bactek
methods
33. Other methods in Isolation of
Enteric Pathogens
Feces Culture
Urine Culture
Bone marrow cultures ( Highly Sensitive )
34. Emerging Methods in Diagnosis of
Enteric fevers.
Detection of circulating
antigen by Co -
agglutination methods
with use of Cowan’s strain
Staphylococcus coated
with antibodies
PCR. The advent of PCR
technology has provided
unparalleled sensitivity
and specificity for the
diagnosis of typhoid
35. Diagnosis of Carriers
Useful in public health purpose.
Useful in screening food handlers, cooks, to
detect carrier state
Typhoid bacilli can be isolated from feces or from
bile aspirates
Detection of Vi agglutinins in the Blood can be
determinant of carrier state.
36. Widal Test
In 1896 Widal A professor of
pathology and internal
medicine at the University of
Paris (1911–29), he
developed a procedure for
diagnosing typhoid fever
based on the fact that
antibodies in the blood of an
infected individual cause the
bacteria to bind together into
clumps (the Widal reaction).
37. Diagnosis of Enteric Fever
Widal test
Serum agglutinins raise abruptly during the 2nd or 3rd
week
The widal test detects antibodies against O and H
antigens
Two serum specimens obtained at intervals of 7 – 10
days to read the raise of antibodies.
Serial dilutions on unknown sera are tested against
the antigens for respective Salmonella
False positives and False negative limits the utility of
the test
The interpretative criteria when single serum
specimens are tested vary
Cross reactions limits the specificity
38. Significant Titers helps in
Diagnosis
Following Titers of
antibodies against the
antigens are significant
when single sample is
tested
O > 1 in 160
H > 1 in 320
Testing a paired sample
for raise of antibodies
carries a greater
significance
39. Limitations of Widal test
Classically, a four-fold rise of antibody in
paired sera Widal test is considered
diagnostic of typhoid fever. However,
paired sera are often difficult to obtain and
specific chemotherapy has to be instituted
on the basis of a single Widal
test. Furthermore, in areas where fever
due to infectious causes is a common
occurrence the possibility exists that false
positive reactions may occur as a result of
non-typhoid
40. Antimicrobial Therapy in
Typhoid
With prompt antibiotic therapy, more than 99%
of the people with typhoid fever are cured,
although convalescence may last several
months. The antibiotic chloramphenicolSome
Trade Names
CHLOROMYCETIN
is used worldwide, but increasing resistance
to it has prompted the use of other antibiotics
(such as trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
BACTRIM
SEPTRA
or ciprofloxacin
41. Drug resistance an Emerging
concern
Previously Choramphenicol was the drug of
choice for the treatment of typhoid fever.
However, with the development more safer
and more effective drugs the use of
Choramphenicol has declined these days. 3rd
generation cephalosporins, like Ceftriaxone,
and Flouroquinolones, like ciprofloxacin and
levofloxacin are the drugs of choice for
treatment of typhoid fever .Once again many
strains are sensitive to Choramphenicol
42. Vaccines for Typhoid
Prevention
Two types of vaccines are available
Oral and Inject able
Oral – A live oral vaccine ( typhoral ) is a
stable mutant of S.typhi strain Ty 21a lacking
the enzyme UDP Galactose -4-epimerase.
One capsule given orally taken before food,
with glass of water or milk, on 1, 3, 5 days (
three doses )
No antibiotics should be taken during the
period of administration of vaccine
43. Vaccine - injectable
The inject able vaccine, ( typhim –vi) contains
purified Vi polysaccharide antigen derived from
S.typhi strain ty21
Given as single subcutaneous or intramuscular
injection
Single dose is adequate.
44. Vaccines for Typhoid
Both vaccines are given to only > 5 years of age.
Immunity lasts for 3 years
Need a booster
Vaccines are not effective in
prevention of Paratyphoid fevers