SOURCES OF ERROR IN PRESCRIPTION
1. Abbreviation
2. Name of the drug
3. Strength of the preparation
4. Dosage form of the drug prescribed
5. Dose
6. Instructions for the patient
7. Incompatibilities
1. ABBREVIATION
Abbreviation presents a problem in understanding parts of
prescription order.
Extreme care should be taken by a pharmacist in interpreting the
abbreviation.
Pharmacist should not guess at the meaning of an ambiguous
abbreviation.
E.g: Dispense Achromycin for “Achro” may cause difficulty when a
intention of the prescriber is to dispense Achrostatin.
2. NAME OF THE DRUG
There are certain drugs whose name look or sound like those of
other drugs.
E.g: Digitoxin Digoxin
Prednisone Prednisolone
3. STRENGTH OF THE PREPARATION
The strength of preparation should be stated by prescriber.
It is essential when various strengths of a product are available in
the market.
E.g: It will be a wrong decision on the part of pharmacist to
dispense paracetamol tablet 500 mg when prescription for
paracetamol tablet is received with no specific strength.
4. DOSAGE FORM OF THE DRUG PRESCRIBED
Many medicines are available in more than one dosage form.
E.g: Liquid, Tablet, Capsule and Suppository.
The pharmaceutical form of the product should be written on the
prescription in order to avoid ambiguity.
5. DOSE
Unusually high or low doses should be discussed with the
prescriber.
Paediatric dosage may present a problem. So pharmacist should
consult paediatric posology to avoid any error.
Sometimes a reasonable dose is administered too frequently.
E.g: A prescription for sustained release formulation to be
administered after every 4 hours should thoroughly check
because such dosage forms are usually administered only two or
three times a day.
6. INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE PATIENT
The instructions for the patient which are given in the
prescription are incomplete or omitted.
The quantity of the drug to be taken, the frequently and timing of
administration and route of administration should clearly give in
the prescription so as to avoid confusion.
7. INCOMPATIBILITIES
It is essential to check that there are no pharmaceutical or
therapeutic incompatibilities in a prescribed preparation and
that different medicines prescribed for the same patient do not
interact with each other to produce any harm to the patient.
Certain antibiotics should not be given with meals since it
significantly decrease the absorption of the drug.
This ppt is very simple and has immence importance in dispensing pharmacy. it has been prepared based on the syllabus of WBUT & consists of informations of elimentary label...WHAT IS A “PRESCRIPTION” ?
A Prescription is a written order from a Registered Medical Practitioner, or any other Licensed Practitioner, such as Dentists, Veterinarian etc.
ABBREVIATIONS:-
It represents a problem in understanding the parts of a prescribing order & therefore leads to confusion…
NAME OF THE DRUG
There are certain drugs whose name look or sound like those of other drugs…
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE PATIENTS
It essential to mention the instructions like quantity of the drug to be taken, the frequency & timing of administration in order to avoid confusion…
INCOMPATIBILITIES
It is essential to check that there are no Pharmaceutical or Therapeutic incompatibility in a prescription…
SOURCES OF ERROR IN PRESCRIPTION
1. Abbreviation
2. Name of the drug
3. Strength of the preparation
4. Dosage form of the drug prescribed
5. Dose
6. Instructions for the patient
7. Incompatibilities
1. ABBREVIATION
Abbreviation presents a problem in understanding parts of
prescription order.
Extreme care should be taken by a pharmacist in interpreting the
abbreviation.
Pharmacist should not guess at the meaning of an ambiguous
abbreviation.
E.g: Dispense Achromycin for “Achro” may cause difficulty when a
intention of the prescriber is to dispense Achrostatin.
2. NAME OF THE DRUG
There are certain drugs whose name look or sound like those of
other drugs.
E.g: Digitoxin Digoxin
Prednisone Prednisolone
3. STRENGTH OF THE PREPARATION
The strength of preparation should be stated by prescriber.
It is essential when various strengths of a product are available in
the market.
E.g: It will be a wrong decision on the part of pharmacist to
dispense paracetamol tablet 500 mg when prescription for
paracetamol tablet is received with no specific strength.
4. DOSAGE FORM OF THE DRUG PRESCRIBED
Many medicines are available in more than one dosage form.
E.g: Liquid, Tablet, Capsule and Suppository.
The pharmaceutical form of the product should be written on the
prescription in order to avoid ambiguity.
5. DOSE
Unusually high or low doses should be discussed with the
prescriber.
Paediatric dosage may present a problem. So pharmacist should
consult paediatric posology to avoid any error.
Sometimes a reasonable dose is administered too frequently.
E.g: A prescription for sustained release formulation to be
administered after every 4 hours should thoroughly check
because such dosage forms are usually administered only two or
three times a day.
6. INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE PATIENT
The instructions for the patient which are given in the
prescription are incomplete or omitted.
The quantity of the drug to be taken, the frequently and timing of
administration and route of administration should clearly give in
the prescription so as to avoid confusion.
7. INCOMPATIBILITIES
It is essential to check that there are no pharmaceutical or
therapeutic incompatibilities in a prescribed preparation and
that different medicines prescribed for the same patient do not
interact with each other to produce any harm to the patient.
Certain antibiotics should not be given with meals since it
significantly decrease the absorption of the drug.
This ppt is very simple and has immence importance in dispensing pharmacy. it has been prepared based on the syllabus of WBUT & consists of informations of elimentary label...WHAT IS A “PRESCRIPTION” ?
A Prescription is a written order from a Registered Medical Practitioner, or any other Licensed Practitioner, such as Dentists, Veterinarian etc.
ABBREVIATIONS:-
It represents a problem in understanding the parts of a prescribing order & therefore leads to confusion…
NAME OF THE DRUG
There are certain drugs whose name look or sound like those of other drugs…
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE PATIENTS
It essential to mention the instructions like quantity of the drug to be taken, the frequency & timing of administration in order to avoid confusion…
INCOMPATIBILITIES
It is essential to check that there are no Pharmaceutical or Therapeutic incompatibility in a prescription…
The science of dosage or posology (from Greek posos, how much, and logos, study) is a branch of pharmacology and therapeutics concerned with ‘treatment dosage’ and ‘dosage regimen’. Establishing optimum dosage underpins every clinical development plan for novel therapeutic candidates. Failure to select the adequate drug dose is a leading culprit for regulatory delays or denial of initial applications for new drugs and, more generally, inadequate dose selection contributes to the high attrition rate of pivotal clinical trials.
Liquid dosage forms: Advantages and disadvantages of liquid dosage forms. Excipients used in formulation of liquid dosage forms. Solubility enhancement techniques
BPHARM 1ST SEMESTER 1ST YEAR
PHARMACEUTICS-1
SUSPENSION
Suspensions: Definition, advantages and disadvantages, classifications,
Preparation of suspensions; Flocculated and Deflocculated suspension & stability
problems and methods to overcome.
Liquid dosage forms are effective pharmaceutical products containing a mixture of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API/Drug) and non drug components (excipients). It is a dose of a drug used as a medicine for consumption or administration. Many liquid dosage forms are used in the pharmacy, but the most commonly used are syrup, suspension, and elixirs. The general category of liquid oral doses includes a broad range of dosage forms, broadly classified as monophasic and biphasic. Whereas dosage forms in both types comprise at least one drug, monophasic forms are homogeneous and completely dissolve in liquid, whereas biphasic forms in a vehicle do not dissolve.
The science of dosage or posology (from Greek posos, how much, and logos, study) is a branch of pharmacology and therapeutics concerned with ‘treatment dosage’ and ‘dosage regimen’. Establishing optimum dosage underpins every clinical development plan for novel therapeutic candidates. Failure to select the adequate drug dose is a leading culprit for regulatory delays or denial of initial applications for new drugs and, more generally, inadequate dose selection contributes to the high attrition rate of pivotal clinical trials.
Liquid dosage forms: Advantages and disadvantages of liquid dosage forms. Excipients used in formulation of liquid dosage forms. Solubility enhancement techniques
BPHARM 1ST SEMESTER 1ST YEAR
PHARMACEUTICS-1
SUSPENSION
Suspensions: Definition, advantages and disadvantages, classifications,
Preparation of suspensions; Flocculated and Deflocculated suspension & stability
problems and methods to overcome.
Liquid dosage forms are effective pharmaceutical products containing a mixture of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API/Drug) and non drug components (excipients). It is a dose of a drug used as a medicine for consumption or administration. Many liquid dosage forms are used in the pharmacy, but the most commonly used are syrup, suspension, and elixirs. The general category of liquid oral doses includes a broad range of dosage forms, broadly classified as monophasic and biphasic. Whereas dosage forms in both types comprise at least one drug, monophasic forms are homogeneous and completely dissolve in liquid, whereas biphasic forms in a vehicle do not dissolve.
posology is a branch of medical science which deals with dose or quantity of drugs which can be administered to a patient to get the desired pharmacological actions.
This ppt covers definition of Posology, Therapeutic dose, Official doses, factors deciding dose calculation, and formulae used for child dose calculation.
It is useful for medical and pharmacy students
Therapeutic Regimen
Dose-response Curve
Drug Toxicity
Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment Of Drug Toxicity
Dosage Regimen
Factors To Consider In Design Of Drug Dosage Regimens
Methods To Design A Dosage Regimen
Dosing Of Drugs In Infants And Children
Dosing Of Drugs In The Elderly
Clinical Trial
objectives, applications, mechanism of size separation, the official standard of powders, sieves, sieve shaker, cyclone separator, air separator, bag filter, elutriation tank
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
2. INTRODUCTION
• The word posology is came from the Greek words.
• The meaning of “Posos” is How Much and “Logos”
means Science.
• Posology is a branch of medical science.
• We can not fixed the dose of drug, because there are many
types of factors, which may influence the doses.
• The official dose of any medicines are given in pharmacopoeia,
which is show the actual average dose of medicines for adults
to be taken within 24 hrs.
• Hence it is a duty of doctors prescribe accurate dose and
mention frequency of medicines in prescription.
3. DEFINITION OF POSOLOGY
• Posology: It is a science which teach how to calculate
dose and quantity of drug , which is need to prescribe
to patient in order to get desire pharmaceutical action.
4. FACTORS INFLUENCING DOSE
• The ideal dose of medicines only produce desired
pharmacological action but may this action varies from person to
person.
• due to this reason, the dose of official medicines are given in the
form of range, which give the pharmacological action and the
given range of dose depend on the adult requirement.
• There are some factors, which may affect the dose of drugs:
• Age
• Sex
• Body weight
• Route of administration
6. 1.Age
• The pharmacokinetic of drugs to be altered with age.
• Hence age plays an important role when
prescribing the medicines.
• Adult need high amount of dose than children or old
people , because they are not able to excrete the
drugs as adult can.
• Eg: paracetamol- 500 mg is adult dose not for children
Pharmacokinetic: It means ADME of drug
7. 2.Sex
• Women do not always respond to the action of drug
in same manner as it is done in men.
• In women, morphine produce excitement before
sedation but not happen same in men.
• Eg: Antihistamine, morphine and tetracycline not
given to the lactation mother, because these drugs
are excreted in milk.
8. 3. Body weight
• The dose is refer as dose for adults body weight
between 50- 100 kg.
• But in case of children or obese patient, the
dose of drug calculated according to body weight.
• If adult dose prescribed to children or obese
patient may chance of Causing undesirable effect
9. 4.Route of administration
• In oral route need high dose than
intravenous ,because IV administration of drug directly
goes to blood stream.
• Hence, the effectiveness can control by route
of administration.
10. 5.Time of administration
• Absorption of drug may decrease in presence of
food in stomach.
• Therefore, effect of drug become more if taken before
meal.
• Eg: Antacid should be taken before 1 hr of meal for
getting better effect.
11. 6.Environmental factor
• In day time the effect of stimulant drugs are more.
• Whereas sedative drugs are more effective at night.
• Eg: hypnotic has less effective at day and more
effective at night.
12. 7.Emotional factor
• Personality and behavior of doctor may affect
the effect of drug if he prescribe drug for
psychosomatic disorder.
• Female some time need less dose, because
female are more emotional than men.
13. 8.Presence of disease
• If patient have liver cirrhosis, then chloropromazine
produce prolong effect
• In case of fever patient can better tolerated antipyretic
drugs than normal one.
14. 9.Accumulation
• If drugs are repeatedly taken at short time drug
become accumulate into body, it will slowly excrete
out and may cause toxic effect.
15. 10.Additive effect
• When two or more drugs taken together, the total
action of drugs become more than their sum of
individual action.
16. 11.Synergism
• When drug taken in combination, their action
become increase.
• Synergism help to get desire action not achieve in
single dose. Eg:
Paracetamol+Aceclofenac+Seratopeptidase
17. 12.Antagonism
• Action of one drugs opposed by another drug if
administrated together .
• This kind of effect to be useful in poisoning cases.
• Eg: Milk of magnesia given in acid poisoning, because
milk of magnesia (alkaline) neutralize the effect of acid.
18. 13.Idiosyncrasy
• It is an extra effect of drug, which is different from its
actual effect.
• The idiosyncrasy word now replaced by allergy. Eg:
Small dose of quinine may cause ringing in ears.
19. 14.Tolerance
• Large dose of drug is need to obtain an effect produced by
normal dose of drug are called as drug tolerance.
• Types:
• True tolerance: Produced by administration of oral
route or parental route of drug.
• Pseudo tolerance: Produced by oral route of administration.
Eg: Alcoholic person may tolerate large quantity of alcohol.
20. 15.Tachyphylaxis
• If drug administered repeatedly at short interval then
the action of drug decrease due to blocking of cell
receptor and this decreased response can not
reversed by increasing dose.
• Eg: If ephedrine given in repeated dose in short
interval may produce very less effect for bronchial
asthma.
21. 16.Metabolic disturbances
• In which the effect of drug changed due to
change in body temperature, electrolyte balance,
acid-base balance
• Eg: Salicylic acid work on patient having fever,
not work on normal patient.
22. CALCULATIONS OF DOSES
• The administration of average dose for adult within 24
hrs by oral route are represent in official book.
• Whenever other route is used then the dose is
adjusted accordingly.
• Actually , the doses are calculate in proportion
to Age, Body weight and Surface area of patient.
23. A. Doses proportion to age
In which, child dose calculated from adult
dose following formula.
1. Young’s Formula: For under 12 years age child.
Age in year
Dose for child= ----------------------- X Adult dose Age
in year+12
24. 2. Dilling’s Formula: For children between 4 to 20 years old.
Age in year
Dose for child= ——————————— X Adult dose
20
B. Dose proportionate to body weight:
Calculating dose for child by using body weight.
Child’s weight in Kg
Dose for child = ------------------------------ X Adult dose
70
25. S.A of child
Percentage of adult dose = -----------------------X 100
S.A of adult
C. Doses proportionate to Surface Area (S.A):
Child dose can calculate according to surface
area, Its more satisfactory and complicated than method
based on age
26. VETERINARY DOSES
• Pharmacist having a compounding or dispensing knowledge of all
medicines whether it is for human beings or animal.
• The dose required for animal are higher side than for human
beings, because of this the dose for animals are calculate on the
basis of their surface area or body weight.
• Factors influencing dose of drug in animal:
• Age
• Sex
• Body weight and size
• Time of administration
• Route of administration
27. • Environmental conditions
• Habit
• Rate of elimination
• The effect of drug 10.Purpose of medication
• Species
• Character of drug
28. 1. Age:
• Young animal required less dose than adult one,
because susceptibility reason of young animal.
• Susceptibility: lack of ability to resist something.
2. Sex:
• Always female animal required less dose than male
animal, because many drugs are contra-indicated to
pregnant animal and may cause abortion.
29. 3. Body weight and size:
• The dose for animal is depend on their body weight and size.
• The size of animals are varies according to their breeds.
• Eg: In case of dogs. Heavy breed can tolerate some drugs but
lighter breeds can not.
4. Time of administration:
• Little dose of drug is more effective if taken in an empty
stomach than food stomach.
• Hence, time of administration of drug consider to achieve
desire effect.
• Eg: Purgative is more effective in an empty stomach.
30. 5. Route of administration:
• The dose of drugs changes with its route of
administration. Parenteral preparation given in small
dose than oral preparation.
• Oral >S/C>I/M>I/V
6. Environmental condition:
• Environmental moisture and temperature may affect
to animals tissue.
• In rainy season, when the climate little humid
and hot, less dose needed than in winter when
climate is dry and cold.
31. 7. Habit:
• Habit affect the dose and may develop tolerance for
drug.
• Hence, normal dose fail to produce desire effect, then
need to increase the dose.
8. Rate of elimination:
• This factor affect the dose of drug.
• Those drug are excrete at faster rate , need
large dose to produce effect.
32. 9. The effect of drug:
• When two drugs has similar action , given in combination
their action will increases than their individual dose.
• Otherwise they oppose to another drug. Will not
get actual effect.
10.Purpose of medicine:
• The dose of drug changes with it use
• Eg: Mg sulphate: act as purgative in large dose whereas
act like antacid or laxative in small dose.
• Laxative: same as purgative but less effective Antacid:
remove gases from GIT or anti-flatulent
33. 11. Species:
• The dose of drugs are not similar for all species.
• The dose for cow is different from horse, sheep, cat,
etc.
• Eg: opium produce excitement in horse but narcosis in
dog.
12. Character of the drugs:
• Large dose of Crude drug need to produce effect in
animal than its active constituents.
• Eg: Nux-vomica given in large dose than strychnine
alkaloid given in small dose.
34. Website: www.probecell.com Email: probecellinfo@gmail.com
Ph: 7415211131
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