The document discusses factors that influence the dosage of drugs, noting that dosage cannot be fixed rigidly and must account for factors like age, health, weight, administration route, and drug interactions. It provides details on how factors like age, sex, weight, time of administration, disease states, and metabolic disturbances can impact a drug's effects and required dosage. The goal of considering these influencing factors is to determine the optimal dosage for each individual to achieve the desired therapeutic effects while avoiding toxicity.
Limit tests, Introduction, Definition,
Limit Test For Chlorides
Limit Test For Sulphates
Limit Test For Iron
Limit Test For Lead
Limit Test For Arsenic
Liquid dosage forms: Advantages and disadvantages of liquid dosage forms. Excipients used in formulation of liquid dosage forms. Solubility enhancement techniques
Limit tests, Introduction, Definition,
Limit Test For Chlorides
Limit Test For Sulphates
Limit Test For Iron
Limit Test For Lead
Limit Test For Arsenic
Liquid dosage forms: Advantages and disadvantages of liquid dosage forms. Excipients used in formulation of liquid dosage forms. Solubility enhancement techniques
Before prescribing any pharmaceutical medicine, the physician should consider certain factors that can modify the effect of the drug. The same dose of a drug can produce different degrees of response in different patients and even in the same patient under different situations. The Important factors modify the effect of a drug are subdivided into two groups: patient related factors and drug related factors.
• Patient related factors: age, gender, body weight, presence of food, drug allergy, genetic variation, environmental state, pathological state, psychological state, etc.
• Drug related factors: physical state of a drug, route of drug administration, time of drug administration, drug cumulation, drug combination, drug tolerance, drug dependence, etc.
posology is a branch of medical science which deals with dose or quantity of drugs which can be administered to a patient to get the desired pharmacological actions.
Pharmaceutics is the discipline of pharmacy that deals with the process of turning a new chemical entity (NCE) or old drugs into a medication to be used safely and effectively by patients. It is also called the science of dosage form design.
Normally the immune system plays an important role in protecting the body from microorganisms and other foreign substances. If the activity of the immune system is excessive or overreactive, a hypersensitivity reaction develops. The consequences of a hypersensitivity reaction may be injury to the body or death.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
3. INTRODUCTION
• The word posology is derived from the greek words posos meaning how much
and logos meaning science. So posology is a branch of medical science which
deals with dose or quantity of drugs which can be administered to a patient to
get the desired pharmacological actions.
• The dose of a drug cannot be fixed rigidly because there are so many factors
which influence the doses. These factors are age, condition of the patient,
severity of the disease, tolerances both natural and acquired, idiosyncrasy, route
of administration, formulation used, drug interactions and rate of elimination.
4. • The official doses (doses which are given in pharmacopoeia) represent the
average range of quantities suitable for adults which administered orally
within 24 hours.
• When other routes of administration are followed the relevant appropriate
dose is given. It is the responsibility of the prescriber regarding the amount
of the drug to be prescribed or the frequency at which the drug to be
administered.
• But before dispensing any prescription, it becomes the duty of the
pharmacist to satisfy himself that the overdose has not been prescribed.
This can be confirmed either from the prescriber.
5. Factors Influencing Dose
• The optimum dose of a drug which produces the desired therapeutic
effect varies from person to person, because every individuals varies
both in degree and character of the response produced by the drug.
Due to this reason, the doses of official preparations of drugs are
expressed in this form of a range which gives the therapeutic effect.
The dose range is usually based on the average requirements of an
adult patient.
6. The following are some of the factors which influence the dose
• Age
• Sex
• Body weight
• Route of administration
• Time of administration
• Environmental factors
• Emotional factors
• Presence of disease
• Accumulation
• Additive effect
• Synergism
• Antagonism
• Idiosyncrasy
• Tolerance
• Tachyphylaxis
• Metabolic disturbances
7. • AGE
• The pharmacokinetics of many drugs changes with age. Newborn infants
(pediatric) are abnormally sensitive to certain drugs because of the
immature state of their hepatic and renal function by which drugs are
inactivated and eliminated from the body. Failure to detoxify and eliminate
drugs results in their accumulation in the tissues to a toxic level. - Whereas,
elderly patients are more sensitive to some drug effect e.g. hypnotics
which may produce confusion state in them.
8. SEX
• Women do not always respond to the action of drug in the same manner as
it done in men. Special care should be taken when drugs are administered
during menstruation, pregnancy & lactation. The strong purgative eg. Aloes
should be avoided during menstruation. Similarly the drugs which may
stimulate the uterine smooth muscles e.g. drastic purgative, antimalarial
drugs, ergot alkaloids are contra indicated during pregnancy. Alcohol,
barbiturate, narcotic drugs acts on foetus through placenta. During
lactation, morphine, tetracycline avoided because its affect on babies.
9. BODY WEIGHT
• The average dose is mentioned either in terms of mg per kg body
weight. Another technique used as a total single for an adult weighing
between 50-100kg. However, the dose expressed in this fashion may
not apply in case of obese patients, children & malnourished patients.
It should be calculated according to body weight
10. • ROUTE OF ADMINISTRATION
• I.V doses of drug are usually smaller than the oral doses. Intravenous
route this might enhance the chances of drug toxicity. The
effectiveness of drug formulation is generally controlled by the route
of administration.
11. TIME OF ADMINISTARTION
• The presence of food in the stomach delay the absorption of drug &
rapidly absorbed from the empty stomach. But it does not mean that
much effective when taken during or after meal. Iron, arsenic & cod-
liver oil should be given after meal & antacid drugs taken before meal.
12. ENVIROMENTAL FACTORS
• Daylight is stimulant, enhancing the effect of stimulating drugs and
diminishing the effect of hypnotics. Darkness is sedative, hypnotics
are more effective at night.
13. PRESENCE OF DISEASE
• Drugs like barbiturates & chlorpromazine may produce unusually
prolonged effect in patient having liver cirrhosis.
14. ACCUMULATION
• Some drugs produces the toxic effect if it is repeatedly administered
for long time e.g. digitalis, emetine, heavy metals because these
drugs excreted slowly. This occurs due to accumulativeeffect of the
drug.
15. ADDITIVE EFFECT
• When two or more drugs administered together is equivalent to sum
of their individual pharmacological action, the phenomenon is called
as additive effect. E.g ephedrine & aminophylline in the treatment of
bronchial ashtma.
16. SYNERGISM
• When desired therapeutic result needed is difficult to achieve with
single drug at that time two or more drugs are used in the
combination form for increasing their action this phenomenon is
called synergism. E.g. procaine & adrenaline combination, increase
the duration of action of procaine.
17. ANTOGONISM
• When the action of one drug is opposed by the other drug on the same physiological
system is known as drug antagonism. The use of antagonistic response to drugs is
valuable in the treatment of poisoning.
• E.g. milk of magnesia is given in acid poisoning where alkaline effect of milk of magnesia
neutralise the effect of acid poisoning.
• When adrenaline & acetylcholine are given together, they neutralise the effect of each
other due to antagonism because adrenaline is vasoconstrictor & acetylcholine is
vasodilator.
18. • IDIOSYNCRACY
• Idiosyncrasy is also called as allergy. An extraordinary response to a
drug which is different from its characteristic pharmacological action
is called idiosyncrasy. E.g. small quantity of aspirin may cause gastric
hemorrhage. E.g some persons are sensitive to penicillin &
sulphonamide because they produce severe toxic effect.
19. TOLERANCE
• When an unusually large dose of a drug is required to elicit an affect
ordinarily produced by the normal therapeutic dose of the drug, the
phenomenon is called as drug tolerance. E.g. smokers can tolerate nicotine,
alcoholic can tolerate large quantity of alcohol. The drug toleranceis of two
types: True tolerance, which is produced by oral & parenteral
administration of the drug. Pseudo tolerance, which is produced only to
the oral route of administration.
20. TACHYPHYLAXIS
• When some drugs administered repeatedly at short intervals, the cell
receptors get blocked up & pharmacological response to that drug
decreased. The decreased response cannot be reversed by increasing the
dose this phenomenon is called tachyphylaxis or acute tolerance. - E.g.
ephedrine given repeated dose at short intervals in the treatment of
bronchial asthma may produce very less response due to tachyphylaxis.
21. METABOLIC DISTURBANCES
• Changes in water electrolyte balance & acid base balance, body
temperature & other physiological factor may modify the effect of
drug. E.g. salicylates reduce body temperature in only in case an
individual has rise in body temperature. They have no antipyretic
effect if the body temperature is normal.
