Types of Receptors
Receptors are protein molecules in the target cell or on its surface that bind ligands. There are two types of receptors: internal receptors and cell-surface receptors.
1.Receptors Link to other Enzymatic Activity.
2.Pathway of Intracellular Signal Transduction.
3.The Cyclic AMP pathway4.Cyclic GMP pathway
5.Phospholipids and Ca2+
6.The PI3-Kinase /Akt and mTOR pathways.
7.MAP Kinase Pathway.
Types of Receptors
Receptors are protein molecules in the target cell or on its surface that bind ligands. There are two types of receptors: internal receptors and cell-surface receptors.
1.Receptors Link to other Enzymatic Activity.
2.Pathway of Intracellular Signal Transduction.
3.The Cyclic AMP pathway4.Cyclic GMP pathway
5.Phospholipids and Ca2+
6.The PI3-Kinase /Akt and mTOR pathways.
7.MAP Kinase Pathway.
This Slide gives you a idea about the subject Cellular and Molecular pharmacology where the cell signalling, secondary messengers and its intracellular signalling pathways has been celarly explained
Signal transducing machinery as targets for potential drugs.
Drugs:-
a). Diclofenac- for treating cholera toxin
b). Fasentin- for treating insulin signalling
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
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Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
2. INTRODUCTION
•Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP, cyclic AMP, or 3',5'-
cyclic adenosine monophosphate) is a second messenger important in
many biological processes.
•cAMP is a derivative of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and used for
intracellular signal transduction in many different organisms, conveying
the cAMP-dependent pathway. It should not be confused with 5'-AMP-
activated protein kinase (AMP-activated protein kinase).
3. INTRODUCTION
• Theextracellular molecules (hormones) that bind to areceptor isthe 1stmessengerof a
pathway.
• Hormonesforms HRcomplexandeventually leadsto formation of secondmessengers.
• Secondmessengersareintracellular non-protein, water soluble signal molecules that
spreadthroughout acell by diffusion.
• Theyrelay signalsfor receptors on cell surface to target molecules inside cells.It
significantly amplifies the strength of signals.
• Oneof major secondmessengeriscyclic AMP(CYCLICADENOSINEMONOPHOSPHATE)
• EarlWilbur SutherlandJr.,discoveredsecondmessengerfor which hewon 1971 Nobel
prize.
5. STEPS INVOLVED…..
Step1 : BINDING OF HORMONE to a specific receptor in the cell membrane
Step2: ACTIVATION OF G-PROTEIN after the formation of HR complex, GDP is replaced
by GTP.
Step3: ACTIVATION OF ENZYME ADENYLATE CYCLASE activated G-protein either
stimulates or inhibits the enzyme adenylate cyclase which is located in plasma
membrane
Step4: FORMATION OF cAMP the part of enzyme adenylyl cyclase protrudes through
the inner surface of the cell membrane and when activated it catalyse the formation of
cAMP from cytoplasmic ATP with Mg2+ as cofactor. Thus a stimulatory G-protein
increases the cAMP level whereas inhibitory G protein decreases the cAMP level.
Step5: Action of cAMP: it activates protein kinase A. One molecule of cAMP stimulates
many enzyme, therefore even a slightest amount of hormone acting on cell surface can
initiate a powerful response.
9. cAMP is a second messenger, used for intracellular signal transduction,
such as transferring into cells the effects
of hormones like glucagon and adrenaline, which cannot pass through the
plasma membrane.
It is also involved in the activation of protein kinases. In addition,
cAMP binds to and regulates the function of ion channels such as the HCN
channels and a few other cyclic nucleotide-binding proteins such
as Epac1 and RAPGEF2.
FUNCTIONS
10. Role in eukaryotic cells
In cell biology, protein kinase A (PKA[N 1]) is a family of enzymes whose activity is dependent on
cellular levels of cyclic AMP (cAMP). PKA is also known as cAMP-dependent protein kinase.
Protein kinase A has several functions in the cell, including regulation of glycogen, sugar,
and lipid metabolism.
Role in bacteria
In bacteria, the level of cAMP varies depending on the medium used for growth. In particular,
cAMP is low when glucose is the carbon source. This occurs through inhibition of the cAMP-
producing enzyme, adenylate cyclase, as a side-effect of glucose transport into the cell.
The transcription factor cAMP receptor protein (CRP) also called CAP (catabolite gene activator
protein) forms a complex with cAMP and thereby is activated to bind to DNA. CRP-cAMP increases
expression of a large number of genes, including some encoding enzymes that can supply energy
independent of glucose.
11. Since cyclic AMP is a second messenger and plays vital role in cell signaling, it has been implicated in
various disorders but not restricted to the roles given below:
Role in human carcinoma
Some research has suggested that a deregulation of cAMP pathways and an aberrant activation of
cAMP-controlled genes is linked to the growth of some cancers.
Role in prefrontal cortex disorders
Recent research suggests that cAMP affects the function of higher-order thinking in the prefrontal
cortex through its regulation of ion channels called hyper polarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated
channels (HCN). When cAMP stimulates the HCN, the channels open, closing the brain cell to
communication and thus interfering with the function of the prefrontal cortex. This research,
especially the cognitive deficits in age-related illnesses and ADHD, is of interest to researchers studying
the brain.
Pathology