Calmodulin is a low molecular weight, acidic, calcium binding protein .
It is a multifunctional intermediate calcium-binding messenger protein expressed in all eukaryotic cells.
It is an intermediate target of the secondary messenger Ca 2+.
The binding of calcium is required for the activation of calmodulin
the ubiquitous calcium binding protein present in both animals and plants and plays a crucial role in signal transduction via calcium ions as second messengers
Calmodulin is a low molecular weight, acidic, calcium binding protein .
It is a multifunctional intermediate calcium-binding messenger protein expressed in all eukaryotic cells.
It is an intermediate target of the secondary messenger Ca 2+.
The binding of calcium is required for the activation of calmodulin
the ubiquitous calcium binding protein present in both animals and plants and plays a crucial role in signal transduction via calcium ions as second messengers
Signal transduction Calcium Signaling vibhakhanna1
A wide range of Ca2+ signaling pathways deliver the spatial and temporal Ca2+ signals necessary to control the specific functions of different cell types, via various effector proteins and protein kinases
MAPK Signaling pathway (Mitogen-activated protein kinase), how the pathway helps in regulation of mitosis, It's activation and inactivation inside the cell, roles of MAPK pathway in cancerous cell, different classes of MAP kinase in human
Introduction
Definition
History
Basic element in signal transduction
Basic Pathway of signal transduction
Types of signal transduction
Second messenger
Pathway of signal transduction
Conclusion
References
GENERAL IDEA OF SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
DEFINATION
WHAT DOES THE TERM SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION MEANS
HISTORY
BASIC ELEMENTS IN SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
TYPES OF SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
SIGNALLING MOLECULE
RECEPTOR MOLECULE
MODES OF CELL CELL SIGNALING
SECOND MESSENGER
SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAY
SOME SIGNALING PATHWAYS
SIGNIFICANCE
CONCLUSION
REFERENCE
Presentation on Electrical Properties of Cell MembraneRubinaRoy1
Cell membrane has the characteristic property to receive stimulus and convey the message through electrical signals, itself getting depolarized and repolarized.
The delivery of newly synthesized protein to their proper cellular destination, usually referred to as protein targeting or sorting.
The mode of protein transport depends chiefly on the location in the cell cytoplasm of the polysomes involved in protein synthesis.
There are two modes of protein sorting:-
1) Co - translational Transportation.
2) Post - translational Transportation.
I have tried to make a precise presentation on protein transport, targeting and sorting into organelle's other than nucleus. Hope this might help you. Comments are welcome.
1.Receptors Link to other Enzymatic Activity.
2.Pathway of Intracellular Signal Transduction.
3.The Cyclic AMP pathway4.Cyclic GMP pathway
5.Phospholipids and Ca2+
6.The PI3-Kinase /Akt and mTOR pathways.
7.MAP Kinase Pathway.
Signal transduction Calcium Signaling vibhakhanna1
A wide range of Ca2+ signaling pathways deliver the spatial and temporal Ca2+ signals necessary to control the specific functions of different cell types, via various effector proteins and protein kinases
MAPK Signaling pathway (Mitogen-activated protein kinase), how the pathway helps in regulation of mitosis, It's activation and inactivation inside the cell, roles of MAPK pathway in cancerous cell, different classes of MAP kinase in human
Introduction
Definition
History
Basic element in signal transduction
Basic Pathway of signal transduction
Types of signal transduction
Second messenger
Pathway of signal transduction
Conclusion
References
GENERAL IDEA OF SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
DEFINATION
WHAT DOES THE TERM SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION MEANS
HISTORY
BASIC ELEMENTS IN SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
TYPES OF SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
SIGNALLING MOLECULE
RECEPTOR MOLECULE
MODES OF CELL CELL SIGNALING
SECOND MESSENGER
SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAY
SOME SIGNALING PATHWAYS
SIGNIFICANCE
CONCLUSION
REFERENCE
Presentation on Electrical Properties of Cell MembraneRubinaRoy1
Cell membrane has the characteristic property to receive stimulus and convey the message through electrical signals, itself getting depolarized and repolarized.
The delivery of newly synthesized protein to their proper cellular destination, usually referred to as protein targeting or sorting.
The mode of protein transport depends chiefly on the location in the cell cytoplasm of the polysomes involved in protein synthesis.
There are two modes of protein sorting:-
1) Co - translational Transportation.
2) Post - translational Transportation.
I have tried to make a precise presentation on protein transport, targeting and sorting into organelle's other than nucleus. Hope this might help you. Comments are welcome.
1.Receptors Link to other Enzymatic Activity.
2.Pathway of Intracellular Signal Transduction.
3.The Cyclic AMP pathway4.Cyclic GMP pathway
5.Phospholipids and Ca2+
6.The PI3-Kinase /Akt and mTOR pathways.
7.MAP Kinase Pathway.
General principles of signal transduction
G Protein-coupled Receptors (GPCRs): Structure and Mechanism.
GPCRs that Regulate Adenylyl Cyclase.
GPCRs that Activate Phospholipase C.
GPCRs that Regulate Ion Channels.
GPCRs that Regulate Gene Transcription.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
1. Protein phosphorylation, kinases
and Phosphatases
Presented by
NATRAJ PREMKUMAR
AD20188502
Graduate Researcher (Ph.D.)
Dept. of Biochemistry
College of Veterinary Medicine.
3. Introduction
• Protein phosphorylation is an important cellular regulatory mechanism as
many enzymes and receptors are activated/deactivated by phosphorylation
and dephosphorylation events, by means of kinases and phosphatases.
• Virtually all types of extracellular signal, including neurotransmitters,
hormones, light, neurotropic factors and cytokines, produce most of their
diverse physiological effects by regulating phosphorylation of specific
phosphoproteins in their target cells.
• In particular, the protein kinases are responsible for cellular transduction
signaling and their hyperactivity, malfunction or over expression can be
found in several diseases, mostly tumors.
• This reversible mechanism occurs through protein kinases and consists of
the addition of a phosphate group (PO4) to the polar group R of various
amino acids
4. • For phosphorylation to be an effective control mechanism allowing the
activity of an enzyme to be both increased and decreased, the overall
reaction has to be reversible.
• Example : The mechanism of control of glycogen metabolism.
5. The mechanism of phosphorylation regulation consists of kinases,
phosphatases and their substrates phospho-binding proteins
6. Some of the enzymes controlled by phosphorylation/
dephosphorylation and the metabolic pathways in which they are
involved
7. • The addition of phosphate groups to proteins and their removal, are enzyme
catalyzed events.
• The enzymes that catalyze protein phosphorylation are known as protein
kinases, and their reciprocal group of enzymes that carry out
dephosphorylation, called phosphatases.
• However, phosphorylation usually takes place on one of only three amino acids
in the primary sequence of the polypeptide, on either a serine, threonine or
tyrosine ,Although as we shall see there are expectations.
• The two main groups are
Serine/threonine kinases that add the phosphate to serine and/or threonine.
Tyrosine kinases that only use tyrosine as acceptors of the phosphate.
• Dephosphorylation is the simple removal of the phosphoryl group from the
amino acid with regeneration of the hydroxyl side chain and release of
orthophosphate.
8. Phosphorylation of serine and tyrosine yields the altered residues
phosphoserine and phosphotyrosine.
9. G- Proteins
Guanine nucleotide binding proteins which act as a Transducer
between a receptor & an effector
Discovered by Alfred Gilman & Martin Rodbell in 1990
Significance:
• 3rd largest family of genes (865)
• Present in almost every organ system
10. Molecular Switch: On/Off
Heterotrimerc
α-subunit
β-subunit
γ-subunit
α subunit: specific recognition of
receptors & effectors;
GTP binding site
βƔ subunit: Membrane localisation by prenylation of Ɣ subunit
11. G Protein Activation
Conformational change in
receptor
α subunit exchange GDP
with GTP
Presence of GEF‟s(Guanine
exchange factors)
Release of GTP bound α
subunit & βƔ dimer
12. In activation
Activated α subunit is
inactivated by hydrolysis of
GTP to GDP by GAPs
(GTPase Activating
Proteins)
Rebinds to βƔ complex
Modulated by
Regulators of G
proteins Signaling (RGSs)
Acclerate hydrolysis of
GTP & potential drug
targets
14. cAMP
System
cGMP
System
Phospho-
inositol
System
Tyrosine
Kinase
System
Ligands Epinephrine
Ach
ANP, NO Oxytocin PDGF
Primary
Effector
Adenyl
cyclase
Guanylate
cyclase
Phospho-
lipase C
Receptor
Tyrosine
kinase
Secondary
messenger
cAMP cGMP IP3 & DAG;
Ca2+
-
• Protein kinases differ in their cellular and subcellular distribution, substrate
specificity and regulation.
• The kinases preferentially phosphorylate the amino acids serine or threonine within
polypeptides, and therefore come under the classification of serine /threonine
kinases.
• Encompass a large group of phosphorylating enzymes, including cAMP-dependent
protein kinase, cGMP-dependent protein kinase, Ca2+ - calmodulin dependent protein
kinases.
16. cAMP-dependent protein kinase (protein kinase A; PKA)
• In multicellular animals virtually all the diverse effects of cAMP are mediated
through protein kinase A (PKA), also called cAMP-dependent protein kinase.
• Another second messenger used in many different cell types is cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cyclic AMP or cAMP), a small molecule made from ATP.
• In response to signals, an enzyme called adenylyl cyclase converts ATP into cAMP,
removing two phosphates and linking the remaining phosphate to the sugar in a ring
shape.
• Once generated, cAMP can activate an enzyme called protein kinase A (PKA), enabling
it to phosphorylate its targets and pass along the signal.
• Protein kinase A is found in a variety of types of cells, and it has different target
proteins in each. This allows the same cAMP second messenger to produce different
responses in different contexts.
• cAMP signaling is turned off by enzymes called phosphodiesterases, which break the
ring of cAMP and turn it into adenosine monophosphate (AMP).
17. • Inactive PKA is a tetramer
consisting of two regulatory (R)
subunits and two catalytic (C)
subunits.
• Each R subunit has two distinct
cAMP-binding sites; binding of
cAMP to both sites in an R subunit
leads to release of the associated C
subunit, unmasking its catalytic site
and activating its kinase activity.
cAMP has following major targets:
1. cAMP dependent Protein Kinase A (PKA)
2. CREB (cAMP responsive element binding protein)
3. cAMP regulated Guanine nucleotide exchange factors termed EPACs
(Exchange Proteins Activated by cAMP)
19. 3. Exchange Proteins Activated by cAMP (EPAC)
cAMP Regulated Guanine
Nucleotide Exchange Factors
Bind to GDP liganded
GTPase, exchange of GDP
for GTP
Activation of PKC
Cell differentiation/proliferation,cytoskeletal
organization, & nuclear transport
Additional effector system
Potential target for cancer therapy
20. cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG)
• cGMP is also an important cell signaling molecule in cells .The levels of cGMP in cells,
like that of cAMP, can be used to control phosphorylation often via cGMP-dependent
protein kinase or cGK or PKG (protein kinase G).
• PKG shows a much more limited cellular distribution and substrate specificity than
PKA. This reflects the smaller number of second messenger actions of cGMP in the
regulation of cell function.
• The first messenger, nitric oxide, stimulates cGMP production by directly activating
guanylyl cyclases .
• cGMP phosphodiesterases hydrolyze cGMP and are the pharmacological targets of
therapeutic agents such as sildenafil used to treat erectile dysfunction
21.
22. Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases
(CaM kinases; CaMKs)
• Calcium ions (Ca2+) impact nearly every aspect of cellular life.
• The processes of calcium signaling consist of the molecular and biophysical events that
link external stimuli to the expression of appropriate intracellular responses by means
of increases in cytoplasmic Ca2+.
• The external signal is most commonly a neurotransmitter, hormone or growth factor
but, in the case of excitable cells, the initial chemical stimuli may bring about
membrane excitation, which in turn activates a calcium-signaling pathway.
• CaMKs transfer phosphates from ATP to serine or threonine kinases residues in
proteins in response to increase in concentration of intracellular calcium ions.
• They are important for expression of various genes because after activation, CAMKs
phosphorylate several transcription factors.
• The enzyme exists under physiological conditions as large multimeric complexes of
identical or distinct subunit isoforms of 50–60 kDa.
23.
24. Protein kinase C
• Protein kinase C (PKC) comprises the other major class of Ca2+ -dependent protein kinases and is
activated by Ca2+ in conjunction with DAG and phosphatidylserine .
• PKC exists under physiological conditions as single polypeptide chains of about 80 kDa. Each
polypeptide contains a regulatory domain, which, in the resting state, binds to and inhibits a
catalytic domain.
• For example, they differ in the relative ability of Ca2+ and DAG to activate them: some require
both Ca2+ and DAG, whereas others can be activated by DAG alone, apparently without an
increase in cellular Ca2+ concentrations .
25. AMP-activated protein kinase
• A protein kinase that has recently been shown to be important in a variety of
pathways is 5’ AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK).
• In the active state it phosphorylates, and inactivates, several metabolic enzymes
involved in the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol, and it has also been shown
to be important for insulin signaling, where inhibition of AMPK in the presence of
glucose activates insulin secretion.
• It is expressed in a number of tissues, including the liver, brain, and skeletal
muscle.
• When AMPK phosphorylates acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC1) or sterol regulatory
element-binding protein 1c (SREBP1c), it inhibits synthesis of fatty acids,
cholesterol, and triglycerides, and activates fatty acid uptake and β-oxidation.
28. • A tyrosine kinase is an enzyme that can transfer a phosphate group from ATP to a
protein in a cell. It functions as an "on" or "off" switch in many cellular functions.
Tyrosine kinases are a subclass of protein kinase.
• The phosphate group is attached to the amino acid tyrosine on the protein. Tyrosine
kinases are a subgroup of the larger class of protein kinases that attach phosphate
groups to other amino acids (serine and threonine).
• Phosphorylation of proteins by kinases is an important mechanism in communicating
signals within a cell (signal transduction) and regulating cellular activity, such as cell
division.
• Protein kinases can become mutated, stuck in the "on" position, and cause unregulated
growth of the cell, which is a necessary step for the development of cancer.
• Therefore, kinase inhibitors, such as imatinib, are often effective cancer treatments.
• Most tyrosine kinases have an associated protein tyrosine phosphatase, which removes
the phosphate group.
29. Receptor Tyrosine Kinases
• A second major class of protein kinases including those that add a phosphoryl group to
tyrosine , as opposed to serine or threonine.
• Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are the high-affinity cell surface receptors for many
polypeptide growth factors, cytokines, and hormones.
• Receptor tyrosine kinases have been shown not only to be key regulators of normal cellular
processes but also to have a critical role in the development and progression of many types
of cancer.
• Mutations in receptor tyrosine kinases leads to activation of a series of signaling cascades
which have numerous effects on protein expression .
• Receptor tyrosine kinases are part of the larger family of protein tyrosine kinases,
encompassing the receptor tyrosine kinase proteins which contain a trans membrane domain,
as well as the non receptor tyrosine kinases which do not possess trans membrane domains.
30.
31. Cytosolic Tyrosine Kinases
• We turn now to a second important class of cell-surface receptors, the cytokine
receptors, whose cytosolic domains are closely associated with a member of a family
of cytosolic protein tyrosine kinases, the JAK kinases.
• A third class of receptors, the receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs),contain intrinsic
protein tyrosine kinase activity in their cytosolic domains.
• The mechanisms by which cytokine receptors and receptor tyrosine kinases become
activated by ligands are very similar, and there is considerable overlap in the
intracellular signal-transduction pathways triggered by activation of receptors in
both classes.
• In this section, we first describe some similarities in signaling from these two
receptor classes. We then discuss the JAK-STAT pathway, which is initiated mainly
by activation of cytokine receptors.
32.
33. Mitogen-activated protein kinases
• In mammalian cells all receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), as well as most cytokine
receptors, appear to utilize a highly conserved signal transduction pathway in which
the signal induced by ligand binding is carried via GRB2 and Sos to Ras, leading to its
activation.
• Activated Ras promotes formation at the membrane of signaling complexes
containing three sequentially acting protein kinases that are associated with a
scaffold protein. This kinase cascade culminates in activation of MAP kinase, a
serine/threonine kinase also known as ERK.
• After trans locating into the nucleus, MAP kinase can phosphorylate many different
proteins, including transcription factors that regulate expression of important cell-
cycle and differentiation-specific proteins.
• Activation of MAP kinase in two different cells can lead to similar or different
cellular responses, as can its activation in the same cell following stimulation by
different hormones.
36. Serine/Threonine Phosphatases
• Protein dephosphorylation is catalyzed by phospho hydrolases called protein
phosphatases.
• Ser/Thr-specific protein phosphatases are regulated partly by their location within the
cell and by specific inhibitor proteins.
• Serine and threonine are amino acids which have similar side-chain compositions that
contain a hydroxyl group and thus can be phosphorylated by enzymes called
serine/threonine protein kinases.
• The addition of the phosphate group can be reversed by enzymes called
serine/threonine phosphatases.
• The addition and removal of phosphate groups regulates many cellular pathways
involved in cell proliferation, programmed cell death(apoptosis), embryonic development,
and cell differentiation.
Here are several known groups with numerous members in each:
PPP1 (α, β, γ1, γ2), PPP2 (formerly 2A), PPP3 (formerly 2b, also known as calcineurin)
PPP2C, PPP4, PPP5, PPP6
37. Tyrosine phosphatases
• Tyrosine phosphatases are a group of enzymes that remove phosphate groups from
phosphorylated tyrosine residues on proteins.
• Protein tyrosine (pTyr) phosphorylation is a common post-translational modification
that can create novel recognition motifs for protein interactions and cellular
localization, affect protein stability, and regulate enzyme activity.
• As a consequence, maintaining an appropriate level of protein tyrosine
phosphorylation is essential for many cellular functions.
• Tyrosine-specific protein phosphatases (PTPase) catalyse the removal of a phosphate
group attached to a tyrosine residue, using a cysteinyl-phosphate enzyme
intermediate.
• These enzymes are key regulatory components in signal transduction pathways (such
as the MAP kinase pathway) and cell cycle control, and are important in the control
of cell growth, proliferation, differentiation, transformation, and synaptic plasticity
38.
39. Ubiquitin-proteasome system
• The ubiquitin–proteasome system (UPS) is a complex mechanism where proteins
are first targeted for degradation by the ubiquitination machinery and then
recognized, unfolded and proteolyzed by the proteasome.
• In autophagy-mediated proteolysis, proteins are degraded by the lysosome.
• Although lysosomal proteolysis was initially considered to be a non-selective
system, it has been shown that chaperones and other cargo-recognition
molecules such as ubiquitin determine the degradation of specific proteins by
the lysosome.
• Therefore, the proteasome and autophagy might be interrelated by using
ubiquitin as a common marker for proteolytic degradation.
• Proteasome inhibition has therefore implications in a number of human diseases
such as cancer, inflammation and ischemic stroke and is an important therapeutic
target.