Cohesion: making connections between speech and writing
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Cohesion: making connections between speech and writing For more English tutorials, please visit: https://www.thelecturette.com
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Components of lexical meaning
These materials are related to semantic subject , particularly lexical meaning of language . lexical meaning is a very complex phenomenon
Discourse Analysis and Grammar (cohesive devices)
Discourse Analysis and Grammar
Cohesion - cohesive devices
Grammatical devices
Reference - Substitution - Ellipsis - Conjunctions
Many Examples with good explanation
إعداد : عبدالرحمن ايمن عبدالاه
Email: Abdelrahman.Ayman.Abdella@gmail.com
تحت إشراف / د. حامد أبو شرق
كلية التربية جامعة دمنهور
2018
Collocations
The document discusses collocations, or words that frequently occur together. It provides examples of verbs that collocate with certain nouns, such as "perform an operation" but not "perform a discussion". Adjectives are also discussed, such as "high probability" but not "high chance". Finally, it discusses adverb and adjective combinations like "terribly sorry" and "highly unlikely".
02 deixis and distance
The document discusses deixis, or linguistic expressions that indicate spatial, temporal, or personal relationships relative to the speaker. It covers key aspects of person deixis including first, second, and third person pronouns. Spatial deixis involves terms like here and there that indicate location. Temporal deixis uses terms like now and then to indicate time. Deixis is context-dependent and influences how expressions are interpreted. Grammatical context can also impact whether a deictic term is understood as proximal or distal relative to the speaker. Exercises are provided to analyze example deictic signs and interpret their meanings based on deixis type.
syntax
The document discusses syntax and its key aspects:
1. Syntax refers to the arrangement of words in sentences and the rules governing their combinations to form grammatically correct sentences.
2. It involves analyzing the hierarchical structure of sentences by breaking them down into constituent parts such as noun phrases and verb phrases.
3. Phrase structure rules are used to represent sentences as trees to show the constituent structure and linear order of words.
Collocations
In corpus linguistics, a collocation is a series of words or terms that co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. In phraseology, collocation is a sub-type of phraseme. An example of a phraseological collocation, as propounded by Michael Halliday,[1] is the expression strong tea. While the same meaning could be conveyed by the roughly equivalent powerful tea, this expression is considered excessive and awkward by English speakers. Conversely, a corresponding expression in technology, powerful computer, is preferred over strong computer. Phraseological collocations should not be confused with idioms, where an idiom's meaning is derived from its convention as a stand-in for something else while collocation is a mere popular composition.
There are about six main types of collocations: adjective + noun, noun + noun (such as collective nouns), verb + noun, adverb + adjective, verbs + prepositional phrase (phrasal verbs), and verb + adverb.
Collocation extraction is a computational technique that finds collocations in a document or corpus, using various computational linguistics elements resembling data mining.
Deixis
This document discusses the linguistic concept of deixis. Deixis refers to expressions whose meaning depends on the context of the utterance. It describes deixis as pointing to people, objects, events, etc. in relation to the speaker and addressee. The document then discusses different types of deixis, including person, time, place, and social deixis. It provides examples and explanations of how each type is grammaticalized in different languages.
Syntax- introduction to syntax
An introduction to syntax
this power point presentation is actually made for group working in my campus, this task is given by Mr. Sudirman, our lecturer of English Department 13, Lampung University
Recommended
Components of lexical meaning
These materials are related to semantic subject , particularly lexical meaning of language . lexical meaning is a very complex phenomenon
Discourse Analysis and Grammar (cohesive devices)
Discourse Analysis and Grammar
Cohesion - cohesive devices
Grammatical devices
Reference - Substitution - Ellipsis - Conjunctions
Many Examples with good explanation
إعداد : عبدالرحمن ايمن عبدالاه
Email: Abdelrahman.Ayman.Abdella@gmail.com
تحت إشراف / د. حامد أبو شرق
كلية التربية جامعة دمنهور
2018
Collocations
The document discusses collocations, or words that frequently occur together. It provides examples of verbs that collocate with certain nouns, such as "perform an operation" but not "perform a discussion". Adjectives are also discussed, such as "high probability" but not "high chance". Finally, it discusses adverb and adjective combinations like "terribly sorry" and "highly unlikely".
02 deixis and distance
The document discusses deixis, or linguistic expressions that indicate spatial, temporal, or personal relationships relative to the speaker. It covers key aspects of person deixis including first, second, and third person pronouns. Spatial deixis involves terms like here and there that indicate location. Temporal deixis uses terms like now and then to indicate time. Deixis is context-dependent and influences how expressions are interpreted. Grammatical context can also impact whether a deictic term is understood as proximal or distal relative to the speaker. Exercises are provided to analyze example deictic signs and interpret their meanings based on deixis type.
syntax
The document discusses syntax and its key aspects:
1. Syntax refers to the arrangement of words in sentences and the rules governing their combinations to form grammatically correct sentences.
2. It involves analyzing the hierarchical structure of sentences by breaking them down into constituent parts such as noun phrases and verb phrases.
3. Phrase structure rules are used to represent sentences as trees to show the constituent structure and linear order of words.
Collocations
In corpus linguistics, a collocation is a series of words or terms that co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. In phraseology, collocation is a sub-type of phraseme. An example of a phraseological collocation, as propounded by Michael Halliday,[1] is the expression strong tea. While the same meaning could be conveyed by the roughly equivalent powerful tea, this expression is considered excessive and awkward by English speakers. Conversely, a corresponding expression in technology, powerful computer, is preferred over strong computer. Phraseological collocations should not be confused with idioms, where an idiom's meaning is derived from its convention as a stand-in for something else while collocation is a mere popular composition.
There are about six main types of collocations: adjective + noun, noun + noun (such as collective nouns), verb + noun, adverb + adjective, verbs + prepositional phrase (phrasal verbs), and verb + adverb.
Collocation extraction is a computational technique that finds collocations in a document or corpus, using various computational linguistics elements resembling data mining.
Deixis
This document discusses the linguistic concept of deixis. Deixis refers to expressions whose meaning depends on the context of the utterance. It describes deixis as pointing to people, objects, events, etc. in relation to the speaker and addressee. The document then discusses different types of deixis, including person, time, place, and social deixis. It provides examples and explanations of how each type is grammaticalized in different languages.
Syntax- introduction to syntax
An introduction to syntax
this power point presentation is actually made for group working in my campus, this task is given by Mr. Sudirman, our lecturer of English Department 13, Lampung University
4 referring expressions
Referring expressions are linguistic elements that refer to specific people or things. Not all expressions have referents, only referring expressions, which are used to point to a particular person or thing that the speaker has in mind. Referring expressions can be proper nouns, pronouns, or longer phrases, but their use as a referring expression depends on the linguistic context and whether a specific referent was intended. Definite noun phrases are often but not always used as referring expressions.
Processes of word formation
The document discusses various processes of word formation in languages. It identifies 10 main processes: coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, acronyms, affixation, and reduplication. Each process is explained with examples to illustrate how new words are created in a language through these different morphological processes.
Deixis concept
The document discusses the importance of deixis, or contextual reference, to language written for performance. It begins by explaining different types of deixis, including person, spatial, temporal, and social deixis. For person deixis, it notes that while English distinguishes pronouns based on gender, Indonesian uses the neutral pronoun "dia" for all. This can make referents ambiguous. For spatial, temporal, and social deixis, it argues they can also introduce ambiguity if contextual information is lacking. Overall, the document suggests deixis is important to consider in performance writing to avoid potential confusion for audiences.
A word and its forms inflection
This document discusses words that do and do not need to be listed in dictionaries. It provides examples of words like "performs" and "performed" that are predictable based on their grammatical rules and do not need to be listed. It explains that words like "pianists" do not need to be listed because their plural form can be predicted by adding "-s" to the singular form. Exceptions to this rule of pluralization are also mentioned, such as words like "children" and "teeth".
Structure of English: Constituents and functions
Here are the subjects and predicates of the sentences:
a. Subject: Her memory for names and dates
Predicate: was a constant source of amazement to him
b. Subject: The prune fritters
Predicate: left something to be desired
c. Subject: There
Predicate: are too many uninvited guests here
d. Subject: Only six of the thirty domino-toppling contestants
Predicate: came properly equipped
e. Subject: It
Predicate: was Lydia who finally trapped the pig
f. Subject: The fact that you received no birthday greetings from Mars
Predicate: doesn‟t mean that it is uninhab
Linguistic = PRAGMATICS
The document discusses linguistic meaning and context. It provides examples showing how speakers can intend different meanings for the same words depending on context, like the Scottish boy referring to the war with England rather than World War 2. It also discusses how listeners use context and inference to understand intended meanings, not just dictionary definitions, like recognizing a sign advertising parking rather than heated attendants. Pragmatics is the study of intended meaning and how context contributes to understanding beyond the literal meaning of words.
Structure of words: MORPHEMES
This document discusses the structure of words in morphology. It defines words, morphemes, and different types of morphemes. There are free and bound morphemes. Lexical morphemes convey meaning while grammatical morphemes provide grammatical information. Derivational affixes create new words while inflectional affixes create word forms. Allomorphs are variant forms of morphemes. The structure of words can be analyzed down to the morpheme level. There is no definite longest word in English because new complex words can always be created by combining morphemes.
Sentence meaning is different from speaker’s meaning
Sentence meaning focuses on the literal meaning of words, while speaker's meaning considers the intended context and implications. Headlines often illustrate this difference:
1) A headline about "Terry Smith collapsed face-down in a pool of his own vomit" implies he slipped, but the speaker meaning is that he died from excessive alcohol use.
2) "Repositioning Pakistan" semantically suggests relocating Pakistan, but the speaker discusses geopolitical changes affecting the country.
3) "Government to drop 'White Bomb' in budget" literally references a bomb, but actually means increasing dairy taxes.
Considering both sentence meaning and speaker's intended context provides a fuller understanding of communication.
Word meaning
This document discusses different types of word meaning:
1) Conceptual meaning refers to the basic or core meaning of a word.
2) Associative meaning involves associations with other words or contexts of use.
3) Social meaning conveys information about social contexts or circumstances of use through differences in formality or dialect.
Examples are given of words with different social meanings based on context or region. The document also discusses related linguistic concepts like synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, hyponymy, and idioms.
Noun Phrase
A noun phrase refers to a group of words that functions as a noun, including the noun and any modifiers or determiners. Modifiers such as adjectives, prepositional phrases, and relative clauses provide additional information about the noun. Determiners like articles and possessives also clarify or describe the noun. Similarly, an adjective phrase is a group of words that describes a noun or pronoun, consisting of an adjective and any additional modifiers. Both noun phrases and adjective phrases add detail to nouns or pronouns in a sentence.
deixis-and-distance
Deixis refers to words whose meaning depends on context, such as pronouns and expressions of time, place, and social relationships. There are several types of deixis:
1) Person deixis includes pronouns that refer to the speaker (I/me), addressee (you), and others (he/she).
2) Spatial or place deixis refers to location using words like here, there, this, and that.
3) Temporal or time deixis uses expressions like now, then, tomorrow to indicate when events occur.
4) Social deixis conveys social relationships through honorifics and relative social status. Deixis allows language to link words
Homonym & polysemy
This document discusses homonyms and polysemy. A homonym is a word that is spelled and pronounced the same as another word but has a different meaning. Polysemy refers to a single word having multiple related meanings. The document provides examples of homonyms like "arm" and "flat" and polysemous words like "book" and "milk." It explains that while homonyms have no relationship between meanings, polysemous meanings can be traced etymologically and semantically.
SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS - PRESUPPOSITIONS AND ENTAILMENTS
This document discusses the concepts of presupposition and entailment in linguistics. It defines presupposition as something the speaker assumes to be true prior to making an utterance, while entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in an utterance. The document provides examples and types of presuppositions including existential, factive, lexical, structural, non-factive, and counter-factual presuppositions. It also discusses entailments and how they differ from presuppositions in depending on sentence meaning rather than context. The document concludes by explaining the projection problem with presuppositions and how foreground and background entailments can indicate intended meaning.
Noun clause functions
This document defines and provides examples of different types of clauses, with a focus on noun clauses. It defines a noun clause as a dependent clause that functions similar to a noun by acting as a subject, object, or complement. The document then discusses the different grammatical functions that noun clauses can serve, including as a subject, subject complement, direct object, object complement, prepositional complement, adjective phrase complement, and appositive. Examples are provided for each grammatical function.
Pragmatics: Deixis And Distance By Dr.Shadia.Pptx
Deixis refers to linguistic elements whose meaning depends on context. There are several types of deixis:
1. Person deixis refers to pronouns like I, you, he/she that indicate speaker and addressee.
2. Place deixis uses words like here and there to indicate locations relative to the speaker.
3. Time deixis references moments like now and then in relation to utterance time.
4. Discourse deixis refers back to parts of the ongoing conversation using words like before, after.
5. Social deixis encodes social relationships through honorifics and polite forms. Deictic elements are crucial for communication as their meaning relies on shared context
03 reference and inference
The document summarizes some key concepts about deixis and reference in linguistics. It discusses how referring expressions like names can refer to people or objects associated with those names, depending on context. It also explains how anaphora allows speakers to refer back to entities introduced earlier in the discourse using pronouns or definite noun phrases. Successful reference depends on the listener inferring the speaker's intended referent based on linguistic and contextual clues.
Reference: Pragmatics
This document discusses the concepts of reference and inference in pragmatics. It defines reference as using linguistic forms like referring expressions to identify things, and inference as connecting prior knowledge to understand implied meanings beyond what is directly stated. There are four main categories of referring expressions: proper nouns, definite noun phrases, indefinite noun phrases, and pronouns. For successful reference, both the linguistic context and physical context must be considered to determine the intended referent. Reference relies on anaphora to continue identifying entities, while ellipsis and implicature also play a role through omitted references understood through inference.
Pragmatics
This document summarizes a power point presentation on pragmatics by Guillermo Torres. It defines pragmatics as the study of contextual meaning, speaker meaning, and how more is communicated than what is said. It discusses deixis, reference and inference, presupposition versus entailment, cooperation and implicature, speech acts, and politeness in interaction. The presentation provides examples and explanations of these key concepts in pragmatics.
Compound nouns
This document defines and provides examples of compound nouns. It explains that compound nouns are made up of two or more words, with the first part describing the object or person and the second part identifying it. Compound nouns can be written as one word, with a hyphen, or as two separate words. The document lists different parts of speech that can combine to form compound nouns, such as noun+noun, verb+noun, and adjective+noun combinations. It provides many examples of common English compound nouns.
Music enhance vocabulary learning[1]
Students were tasked with learning new vocabulary through songs. An assessment of two students found that they had greater success learning and using unknown words in written contexts compared to oral contexts. When writing compositions, the students were able to correctly use some of the new words derived from songs. However, in an oral chain story activity where they had to incorporate unknown words, the students struggled and had difficulty continuing the story without teacher assistance. Overall, the results showed that songs can help increase vocabulary learning, but oral use of new words posed a greater challenge than written use.
Cohesion: connectors
Connectors are used to join ideas and statements by indicating their relationship. They are used to add relevant points, compare and contrast, indicate conditions, give reasons, and highlight examples. Some common connectors are moreover, furthermore, whereas, while, although, however, despite, since, because, for, and in particular.
Cohesion - An introduction
Cohesion refers to linking words, sentences, and ideas together in a text. There are three main ways cohesion is created:
1) Connectors are joining words like "although" and "in spite of" that link ideas and indicate functions like contrasting.
2) Reference words like "who", "which", and "this" refer back to people, things, and ideas already mentioned to avoid repetition.
3) Referring to other parts of a text, using expressions like "as follows" and "see above", makes lengthy texts more comprehensible by connecting different sections.
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What's hot
4 referring expressions
Referring expressions are linguistic elements that refer to specific people or things. Not all expressions have referents, only referring expressions, which are used to point to a particular person or thing that the speaker has in mind. Referring expressions can be proper nouns, pronouns, or longer phrases, but their use as a referring expression depends on the linguistic context and whether a specific referent was intended. Definite noun phrases are often but not always used as referring expressions.
Processes of word formation
The document discusses various processes of word formation in languages. It identifies 10 main processes: coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, acronyms, affixation, and reduplication. Each process is explained with examples to illustrate how new words are created in a language through these different morphological processes.
Deixis concept
The document discusses the importance of deixis, or contextual reference, to language written for performance. It begins by explaining different types of deixis, including person, spatial, temporal, and social deixis. For person deixis, it notes that while English distinguishes pronouns based on gender, Indonesian uses the neutral pronoun "dia" for all. This can make referents ambiguous. For spatial, temporal, and social deixis, it argues they can also introduce ambiguity if contextual information is lacking. Overall, the document suggests deixis is important to consider in performance writing to avoid potential confusion for audiences.
A word and its forms inflection
This document discusses words that do and do not need to be listed in dictionaries. It provides examples of words like "performs" and "performed" that are predictable based on their grammatical rules and do not need to be listed. It explains that words like "pianists" do not need to be listed because their plural form can be predicted by adding "-s" to the singular form. Exceptions to this rule of pluralization are also mentioned, such as words like "children" and "teeth".
Structure of English: Constituents and functions
Here are the subjects and predicates of the sentences:
a. Subject: Her memory for names and dates
Predicate: was a constant source of amazement to him
b. Subject: The prune fritters
Predicate: left something to be desired
c. Subject: There
Predicate: are too many uninvited guests here
d. Subject: Only six of the thirty domino-toppling contestants
Predicate: came properly equipped
e. Subject: It
Predicate: was Lydia who finally trapped the pig
f. Subject: The fact that you received no birthday greetings from Mars
Predicate: doesn‟t mean that it is uninhab
Linguistic = PRAGMATICS
The document discusses linguistic meaning and context. It provides examples showing how speakers can intend different meanings for the same words depending on context, like the Scottish boy referring to the war with England rather than World War 2. It also discusses how listeners use context and inference to understand intended meanings, not just dictionary definitions, like recognizing a sign advertising parking rather than heated attendants. Pragmatics is the study of intended meaning and how context contributes to understanding beyond the literal meaning of words.
Structure of words: MORPHEMES
This document discusses the structure of words in morphology. It defines words, morphemes, and different types of morphemes. There are free and bound morphemes. Lexical morphemes convey meaning while grammatical morphemes provide grammatical information. Derivational affixes create new words while inflectional affixes create word forms. Allomorphs are variant forms of morphemes. The structure of words can be analyzed down to the morpheme level. There is no definite longest word in English because new complex words can always be created by combining morphemes.
Sentence meaning is different from speaker’s meaning
Sentence meaning focuses on the literal meaning of words, while speaker's meaning considers the intended context and implications. Headlines often illustrate this difference:
1) A headline about "Terry Smith collapsed face-down in a pool of his own vomit" implies he slipped, but the speaker meaning is that he died from excessive alcohol use.
2) "Repositioning Pakistan" semantically suggests relocating Pakistan, but the speaker discusses geopolitical changes affecting the country.
3) "Government to drop 'White Bomb' in budget" literally references a bomb, but actually means increasing dairy taxes.
Considering both sentence meaning and speaker's intended context provides a fuller understanding of communication.
Word meaning
This document discusses different types of word meaning:
1) Conceptual meaning refers to the basic or core meaning of a word.
2) Associative meaning involves associations with other words or contexts of use.
3) Social meaning conveys information about social contexts or circumstances of use through differences in formality or dialect.
Examples are given of words with different social meanings based on context or region. The document also discusses related linguistic concepts like synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, hyponymy, and idioms.
Noun Phrase
A noun phrase refers to a group of words that functions as a noun, including the noun and any modifiers or determiners. Modifiers such as adjectives, prepositional phrases, and relative clauses provide additional information about the noun. Determiners like articles and possessives also clarify or describe the noun. Similarly, an adjective phrase is a group of words that describes a noun or pronoun, consisting of an adjective and any additional modifiers. Both noun phrases and adjective phrases add detail to nouns or pronouns in a sentence.
deixis-and-distance
Deixis refers to words whose meaning depends on context, such as pronouns and expressions of time, place, and social relationships. There are several types of deixis:
1) Person deixis includes pronouns that refer to the speaker (I/me), addressee (you), and others (he/she).
2) Spatial or place deixis refers to location using words like here, there, this, and that.
3) Temporal or time deixis uses expressions like now, then, tomorrow to indicate when events occur.
4) Social deixis conveys social relationships through honorifics and relative social status. Deixis allows language to link words
Homonym & polysemy
This document discusses homonyms and polysemy. A homonym is a word that is spelled and pronounced the same as another word but has a different meaning. Polysemy refers to a single word having multiple related meanings. The document provides examples of homonyms like "arm" and "flat" and polysemous words like "book" and "milk." It explains that while homonyms have no relationship between meanings, polysemous meanings can be traced etymologically and semantically.
SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS - PRESUPPOSITIONS AND ENTAILMENTS
This document discusses the concepts of presupposition and entailment in linguistics. It defines presupposition as something the speaker assumes to be true prior to making an utterance, while entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in an utterance. The document provides examples and types of presuppositions including existential, factive, lexical, structural, non-factive, and counter-factual presuppositions. It also discusses entailments and how they differ from presuppositions in depending on sentence meaning rather than context. The document concludes by explaining the projection problem with presuppositions and how foreground and background entailments can indicate intended meaning.
Noun clause functions
This document defines and provides examples of different types of clauses, with a focus on noun clauses. It defines a noun clause as a dependent clause that functions similar to a noun by acting as a subject, object, or complement. The document then discusses the different grammatical functions that noun clauses can serve, including as a subject, subject complement, direct object, object complement, prepositional complement, adjective phrase complement, and appositive. Examples are provided for each grammatical function.
Pragmatics: Deixis And Distance By Dr.Shadia.Pptx
Deixis refers to linguistic elements whose meaning depends on context. There are several types of deixis:
1. Person deixis refers to pronouns like I, you, he/she that indicate speaker and addressee.
2. Place deixis uses words like here and there to indicate locations relative to the speaker.
3. Time deixis references moments like now and then in relation to utterance time.
4. Discourse deixis refers back to parts of the ongoing conversation using words like before, after.
5. Social deixis encodes social relationships through honorifics and polite forms. Deictic elements are crucial for communication as their meaning relies on shared context
03 reference and inference
The document summarizes some key concepts about deixis and reference in linguistics. It discusses how referring expressions like names can refer to people or objects associated with those names, depending on context. It also explains how anaphora allows speakers to refer back to entities introduced earlier in the discourse using pronouns or definite noun phrases. Successful reference depends on the listener inferring the speaker's intended referent based on linguistic and contextual clues.
Reference: Pragmatics
This document discusses the concepts of reference and inference in pragmatics. It defines reference as using linguistic forms like referring expressions to identify things, and inference as connecting prior knowledge to understand implied meanings beyond what is directly stated. There are four main categories of referring expressions: proper nouns, definite noun phrases, indefinite noun phrases, and pronouns. For successful reference, both the linguistic context and physical context must be considered to determine the intended referent. Reference relies on anaphora to continue identifying entities, while ellipsis and implicature also play a role through omitted references understood through inference.
Pragmatics
This document summarizes a power point presentation on pragmatics by Guillermo Torres. It defines pragmatics as the study of contextual meaning, speaker meaning, and how more is communicated than what is said. It discusses deixis, reference and inference, presupposition versus entailment, cooperation and implicature, speech acts, and politeness in interaction. The presentation provides examples and explanations of these key concepts in pragmatics.
Compound nouns
This document defines and provides examples of compound nouns. It explains that compound nouns are made up of two or more words, with the first part describing the object or person and the second part identifying it. Compound nouns can be written as one word, with a hyphen, or as two separate words. The document lists different parts of speech that can combine to form compound nouns, such as noun+noun, verb+noun, and adjective+noun combinations. It provides many examples of common English compound nouns.
Music enhance vocabulary learning[1]
Students were tasked with learning new vocabulary through songs. An assessment of two students found that they had greater success learning and using unknown words in written contexts compared to oral contexts. When writing compositions, the students were able to correctly use some of the new words derived from songs. However, in an oral chain story activity where they had to incorporate unknown words, the students struggled and had difficulty continuing the story without teacher assistance. Overall, the results showed that songs can help increase vocabulary learning, but oral use of new words posed a greater challenge than written use.
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Sentence meaning is different from speaker’s meaning
Sentence meaning is different from speaker’s meaning
SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS - PRESUPPOSITIONS AND ENTAILMENTS
SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS - PRESUPPOSITIONS AND ENTAILMENTS
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Cohesion - An introduction
Cohesion refers to linking words, sentences, and ideas together in a text. There are three main ways cohesion is created:
1) Connectors are joining words like "although" and "in spite of" that link ideas and indicate functions like contrasting.
2) Reference words like "who", "which", and "this" refer back to people, things, and ideas already mentioned to avoid repetition.
3) Referring to other parts of a text, using expressions like "as follows" and "see above", makes lengthy texts more comprehensible by connecting different sections.
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This document discusses the conjunctions "as", "when", "while", "because", and "since". It explains their different meanings and uses, including:
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This document discusses the conjunctions "as", "when", "while", "because", and "since". It explains their different meanings and uses, including:
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- "Because" is preferred over "since" or "as" when indicating a reason or cause to avoid ambiguity.
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This document discusses the conjunctions "as", "when", "while", "because", and "since". It explains their different meanings and uses, including:
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Relative clauses provide extra information about nouns by functioning like adjectives. They can be either defining clauses that identify the noun or non-defining clauses that provide unnecessary but interesting information. Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns like who, which, that, whose or no pronoun. Defining clauses use a definite relative pronoun and are essential to the meaning, while non-defining clauses use commas and are not essential to the meaning. Relative clauses can refer to people using who/whom or things using which and whose is used to talk about something belonging to a person or thing. When, where and why can also be used in some relative clauses.
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Cohesion: making connections between speech and writing
- 1. Cohesion: Making Connections in Speech and Writing
- 2. Cohesion When you speak or write, you usually need to make some connection with other things that you are saying or writing. The most common way of doing this is by referring back to something that has already been mentioned.
- 3. Cohesion One way of referring back to something is to use a personal pronoun such as ‘she’, ‘it’, or ‘them’, or a possessive pronoun such as ‘mine’ or ‘hers’. My father is fat. He weighs over 100 kilos. ‘Have you ever been to London?’ - ‘Yes, it was very crowded.’
- 4. Cohesion You can also use a specific determiner such as ‘the’ or ‘his’ in front of a noun to refer back to something. A man and a woman were walking up the hill. The man wore shorts, a T-shirt, and basketball sneakers. The woman wore a print dress.
- 5. Cohesion ‘Thanks,’ said Brody. He put the telephone down, turned out the light in his office, and walked out to his car.
- 6. Cohesion The demonstratives ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘these’ and ‘those’ are also used to refer back to a thing or fact that has just been mentioned. In 1973 he went on a caravan holiday. At the beginning of this holiday he began to experience pain in his chest.
- 7. Cohesion The following general determiners can also be used to refer back to something. another each every other both either neither
- 8. Cohesion Five officials were sacked. Another four were arrested. There are more than two hundred and fifty species of shark, and every one is different.
- 9. Cohesion Another common way of making connections in spoken or written English is by using one of the following coordinating conjunctions: and but nor or so then yet
- 10. Cohesion Anna had to go into town and she wanted to go to Bridge Street. I asked if I could borrow her bicycle but she refused. He was only a boy then, yet he was not afraid.
- 11. Cohesion You can use a coordinating conjunction to link clauses that have the same subject. When you link clauses that have the same subject you do not always need to repeat the subject in the second clause.
- 12. Cohesion She was born in born in Budapest and raised in Manhattan. He didn’t yell or scream. When she saw Morris she went pale, then blushed.
- 13. Cohesion Most subordinating conjunctions can also be used to link sentences together, rather than to link a subordinate clause with a main clause in the same sentence. ‘When will you do it?’ - ‘When I get time.’ ‘Can I borrow your car?’ - ‘So long as you drive carefully.’
- 14. Cohesion When people are speaking or writing, they often use words that refer back to similar words, or words that refer back to a whole sentence or paragraph.
- 15. Cohesion Everything was quiet. Everywhere there was the silence of the winter night. ‘What are you going to do?’ - ‘That’s a good question.’
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