1. Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted early studies on memory using nonsense syllables and discovered the savings method, where relearning a list is faster the second time. 2. Memory follows a forgetting curve where most is lost within a day and continues slowly declining over time. 3. The multi-store model of memory includes sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, each with different capacities and durations. Information moves between stores through rehearsal and encoding.

1. Cognitive Processes:
Memory

2. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885)
• He conducted the first major studies of memory,
• Used himself as a subject and nonsense syllables,
such as VOL, RIZ, and TAV, as a material to be learned
• Measured both learning and retention
Savings method or method of relearning: Hermann Ebbinghaus
1850-1909
• Refers to amount of time it takes to learn a list a second time
• Original overlearning, or repeating the list of items will result in a saving of
both time and errors upon relearning
Nature of Forgetting:
Initial drop-off followed by slower forgetting overtime
• 63% of material is remembered after 20 minutes
• 38% after one day
• 31% after two days
• 25% after 31 days

3. Forgetting Curve
• Illustrates the decline of memory retention in time.
• Strength of memory refers to the durability
that memory traces in the brain.
• The stronger the memory, the longer
period of time that a person is able to
recall it.
Graph of the Forgetting Curve:
Humans tend to halve their memory of newly
learned knowledge in a matter of days or weeks
unless they consciously review the learned materials

4. Multi-store Model
Memory consists of three levels of systems:
1. sensory memory,
2. Short-Term Memory
3. Long-term Memory
Sensory memory:
• Sense organs have a limited ability to store information for less than a
second
• Provides brief storage of sensory information, after the stimuli have been
removed
• Echoic store: Sensory store (hearing system) for auditory information
• iconic store; Sensory store for visual stimuli
• Visual system processes visual stimuli such as shape, size, color and
location, but not meaning

6. STM (working memory):
• Has a limited capacity
• sensory memory ___attention____ STM
• Holds a limited amount of information for a short period of time
• For example:
- you keep some piece of information in your head for just a few seconds.
- A number to do a subtraction,
- an argument you make after a person finishing talking
• Ability to hold on to a piece of information
temporarily to complete a task.
• It causes pre-frontal lobe to be very active.

7. George Miller (1956)
• Identified "magical number of 7 plus or minus 2 as amount of
information that can be retained in STM with rehearsal
Chunking:
• Increases the amount of information that can be retained in STM store
• Involves grouping large amounts of information into smaller related
units
• For example, the mobile number: 966545074077
• 966 545 074 077
• The 7 units of information could be 7 sentences or 7 phrases, rather
than 7 words or 7 letters

8. Long-term Memory (LTM):
• Has an unlimited capacity
• Information gets into LTM only if it is transferred from STM
• This is related to how information is rehearsed
• Once information is transferred to LTM, it remains there permanently,
• May not remain if brain is compromised severely due to a medical
condition or substance use

9. Atkinson and Shiffrin Model (1968)
Multi-store model
•12 items
•George Sperling (1960)
•Partial Report Paradigm
7±2
Miller’s Magic Number
(1956)

10. 10
Information processing model
Explanations for how
cognitive processes
work are known as
information
processing theories
or models.
The three-
component model of
information
processing is taught
in Educational
Psychology.
http://www.innovativelearning.com/educational_psychology/cognitivism/index.htm

11. Hippocampus:
• Information is transferred from STM to LTM through hippocampus,
• Resembles the curved tail of a seahorse
• Old part of cortex, evolutionarily, and is located in the inner fold of the
temporal lobe.

12. Endel Tulving (1986):
• He divided LTM into three components:
- Procedural
- Semantic
- Episodic
Procedural memory (implicit):
• LTM of motor skills, habits, and ways of doing things, such as drive a car
• Recalled without conscious effort;
• Acquired through observation and practice and are difficult to forget
Semantic memory:
• LTM of knowledge about language (e.g., what words mean and how they
are used),
• common sense, and the rules of logic and inference
• Social customs
Episodic memory (autobiographical memory):
• Contains information about events that have been personally experienced
• Links to time and place

13. • Semantic and episodic together are called “declarative memory”
Declarative Memory (explicit):
• Effortful
• Factual Memory
• Consciously Available
Priming:
• Unconscious and that is not episodic, procedure nor semantic
• Instance of perception rather than memory
• Its role is to enhance identification of objects so that they seem familiar
• Exists when the appearance of fragments of a previously encountered
target (eg, the first few letters, sketchy outline, first letter of a verse in the
Quran)
• Increase in ease of doing a task or remembering information as a result of
a previous encounter with the task or information.

16. Emotional Conditioning:
• Refers to classical conditioning where the CRs are emotional
reactions.
• So you can see how you start to build up a way of behaving in
the world and responding positively or negatively to certain
people, situations, surroundings etc.
• Most of the likes and dislikes, the preferences and biases that
define ones personality, develop through emotional
conditioning
• Culture has a significant role

17. Implicit vs. Explicit Memory
• Tasks on left column are examples of implicit memory that do not require
executive control.
• Brain-damaged or intoxicated humans can still perform them.
• Tasks on the right are examples of explicit memory that require some
conscious control. They are performed poorly by people who are brain-
damaged or drunk
• Items in the left column are all indirect forms of memory.
• They do not involve a conscious strategy for retrieving information.
• If you once learned to read text that is printed backwards, chances are you will
be able to do it later, even if you suffer a brain disorder. The same is true of the
other tasks on the left.
Tasks requiring implicit memory Tasks requiring explicit memory
brushing teeth Buying a toothbrush
mirror tracing recalling last year
reading reversed text paired associate learning
doing a word-completion task identifying the head of state
singing part of a familiar song writing a term paper

18. Baddeley’s Model (working memory)
• Model of working memory
Consists of the following systems:
1. Central executive
Slave systems:
2. Phonological loop
3. Visuospatial sketchpad
4. Episodic buffer
1. Central Executive
• A flexible and supervisory system responsible for the control and regulation
of cognitive processes.
• Controls the flow of information from and to its slave systems
• Selective attention and inhibition
Slave Systems
• Short-term storage systems dedicated to a content domain of verbal and
visuo-spatial.
Auditory/ articulatory

19. The phonological loop (or "articulatory loop")
• Deals with sound or phonological information.
Consists of two parts :
1. Auditory memory (inner ear)
2. articulatory (inner voice)
• Auditory verbal info enters automatically into the phonological store.
• Visually presented language is transformed into phonological code by
silent articulation.
• Plays a role in acquisition of vocabulary, particularly in the early
childhood years.
• Vital for learning a second language.

20. Serial Position Effect (SPE)
• Differentiate between STM and LTM
• Subjects are given a list of unrelated words to remember and recall in any
order
• They recall words from the beginning and the end of the list best
• SPE occurs because words in the beginning of list transferred to LTM,
while words at end of list are still in STM.
• Words in the middle are affected by interference from words came before
and after, and therefore, are not stored in either STM or LTM
• In distracting tasks performed, items at the beginning of the list are well
remembered, but those at the end of list are recalled no better than items
in the middle or end of list
SPE with children and college students:
• Young children always have trouble remembering letters in the middle of
alphabets
• College students have difficulty on exam items targeting information
presented in the middle of a lecture (Holen and Oaster, 1976)

21. Flashbulb Memory:
• Refers to memory transported directly from sensory memory to LTM if it
receives instant attention
• For example, witnessing a fire in your house.
• What you do if you are in a movie theater and see smoke coming out?
• Used to describe vivid, detailed memories of emotionally-charged or
surprising events.
• Most accurate when the event has personal significance or consequences
• Most people living in the United States can recall what they were doing on
the day of September 11, 2001, as it was the day of an extreme event.
• 9/11 has still vivid and accurate memories for Americans than Katharina
flood in Louisiana (New Orleans), which happened several years after 9/11
• Confidence and accuracy about flashbulb memories fade over time

22. • Interviewing witnesses of 9/11 after 1 year and then 9 years later will
make recollections of event differ substantially from earlier ones, even
though certainty and accuracy of memories exist
Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia:
• Anterograde and retrograde amnesia illustrate the existence of separate
STM and LTM stores
Anterograde Amnesia (AA)
• People with AA can recall information they learned prior to a trauma, but
cannot retain any newly learned information
• A person with head trauma cannot remember things occurring afterwards
• In AA, patients lose declarative memory, or the recollection of facts, but
they retain non-declarative memory, or procedural memory
• Patient learns how to talk on phone but does not remember what did
he/she have eaten for breakfast

23. • Person with AA cannot transfer information from STM to LTM
Retrograde Amnesia (RA):
• RA refers to failure to remember events prior to a particular trauma
• For example, patient with head trauma could not remember the accident
caused the head trauma
• Moderate degree of RA is common in persons with brain concussions,
who experience amnesia for events occurred immediately before the
injury
• Extensive RA is rare and more serious than AA
• Neurologically impaired individuals with RA also show AA, though reverse
is not true

24. • One with dissociative amnesia (psychogenic not biologically
caused amnesia) displays Retrograde but not Antrograde
amnesia
• One sign of pseudodementia is Retrograde but not AA
Global amnesia.
• Some patients with severe cases have a combined form of
anterograde and retrograde amnesia
• Neuropsychologists debate over whether it is a problem with
encoding or retrieval

25. Schema Theory of Memory:
• Schema is a cognitive structure or framework that influences how we
look at the world – basically, mental models of how things are
• Wyer and Scull (1986) indicate that schema affects how we store and
retrieve information
• Our memory is filtered through schema
• Witness testimony and other reported memories may be biased to fit
into preexisting schema

26. Mnemonic Devices:
• Strategies known as mnemonic devices improve memory for information
•Method of Loci (ML(:
• Loci" is the plural of locus, which means location, or place
• Involves associating each item to be remembered with mental images of
"places"
• For terms that unrelated and difficult to remember, a visual image is most
effective
• Useful for remembering terms recalled in a specific order
• To use ML, first mentally associate each item to be remembered with a
visual image
• Mentally place these images somewhere in a familiar room or building,
such as in corners, and on tables and chairs

27. • To recall the items, you would mentally walk through the room or building
and "look" around at the items
• ML exemplifies the use of visual imagery as a tool for remembering verbal
information
• Visual imagery is highly effective as a memory aid
• People who have the ability to form vivid visual images tend to be good at
memorizing
Here's how it would work if you wanted to remember the following
shopping list:
1. Ketchup
2. ice cream
• Enter the dining room and picture a bottle of ketchup, dressed in an Asian
maid's uniform, sitting on the table.
• Go to the kitchen and picture a gallon of ice cream, melting over a hot
stove.
• Or locate your car’s driver standing by your house door and visualize him
wearing a cony hat of ice cream

28. Eidetic Imagery: ‫تخيلى‬
• In layperson's terms, it is called "photographic memory“
• Patient can study an image for approximately 30 seconds, and maintain a
nearly perfect photographic memory of that image for a short time once it
has been removed
• Some people have an ability to remember very specific details
• They have ability to recall images, sounds, or objects in memory with
extreme accuracy and in abundant volume.
• Able to maintain a mental picture of an object even after it is removed
• More common in children than adults
• Intensity of recall may be subject to several factors such as duration and
frequency of exposure to the stimulus observation , relevance to the
person, etc

29. Context and State Dependence:
Encoding Specificity Hypothesis (Tulving &Thomson, 1973)
• Indicates that the closer relationship between encoding, storage, and
retrieval, the better the recall of information
Context Dependence:
• When the learning and retrieval environments are the same or similar,
your recall of information will be better than when the two environments
are different
• For example, take exam in your own classroom
State Dependence:
• When your emotional state is the same during learning and retrieval, you
will find it easier to remember information than when your emotional
state differs
• Being in a depressed mood increases tendency to remember negative
events.

30. Environmental reinstatement effect (long-term vs. short-term)
• Long-term: Even after many years of absence, go back to your
primary school campus and you will immediately remember
things that have already been forgotten
• Short-term: Imagine sitting at your desk and deciding to get a
drink from the kitchen.
• Once you get to the kitchen, you completely forget what you
wanted.
• If you return to your desk, you will most likely remember
what you wanted from the kitchen.

31. Hippocampus and prefrontal cortex
• Hippocampus and prefrontal cortex are involved in context dependent
memory.
• fMRI demonstrated elevated activation in the hippocampus when
contextual information matches from encoding to retrieval, suggesting
that the hippocampus may be important in mediating context-dependent
memory processes
• Activation of the right prefrontal cortex was dependent on
contextual information
Hippocampus
activation in
context
dependent
state
pre
prefrontal cortex

32. Example of context dependent memory
• Divers in underwater environment were placed under water
and listened to a prerecorded list of 36 unrelated words.
• After listening to the list of words they were tested on their
recall of the words in:
- the same environment
- the alternative environment.
• Results showed that:
- words learned underwater were best recalled underwater,
- words learned on land were best recalled on land.

33. Overlearning:
• Refers to a person practicing or rehearsing of some material
beyond the point of mastery
• In learning information that has little inherent (‫)متأصل‬meaning
such as multiplication table, overlearning is the most effective
memory strategy
• Overlearning is best for simple tasks

34. Forgetting:
There are a number of theories of forgetting such as:
A. Trace Decay:
• Refers to information in LTM that are deteriorated or forgotten unless it is
accessed or rehearsed
• This explains the loss of information from STM
B. Interference:
Types of interference:
1. Retroactive inhibition (RI)
• RI occurs when a new experience interferes with recall of an earlier one
• For example, anatomy lecture of today interferes with information of
anatomy lecture of last week.
• So you experience difficulty recalling anatomy information of last week

35. Experimental vs. control group:
• Experimental group learns list A and list B and recalls B.
• Control group learns list B and is asked about recalling list B
List A List B_________experimental group___control group
orange okra learn A and B and learn B and
banana biscuit recall A recall B
grape garlic
• Control group recall B better than experimental group.
• Sleeping following the learning of new information demonstrate better
recall than remaining awake after learning the same information
2. Proactive Inhibition (PI)
• Occurs when previous learning interferes with more recent learning.
• For example, anatomy lecture of last week interferes with information of
anatomy lecture of today.
• So you experience difficulty recalling anatomy information of today

36. C. Repression:
• Information is not recalled due to its emotional significance
• An active inhibition of recall, rather than a true loss of information,
accounts for observed instances of forgetting
• Repression of memory is seen as a dynamic and unconscious process
• For example, a severe fright or trauma may be repressed because
recall of trauma is disturbing
• 19% of sexual abuse victims had forgotten but later recalled sexual
abuse (loftus et al, 1994)
Hypnosis:
• Research shows that Memories retrieved under hypnosis tend to be
less accurate than other memories
• Nonetheless, Individuals who recall information while under hypnosis
have greater confidence in their memories as compared to controls
• In some research studies, hypnotized subjects were reluctant to admit
that their memories were inaccurate even confronted with clear
evidence demonstrating this to be the case

37. Anatomically Correct Dolls:
Used for assessment of childhood sexual abuse and by parents of identifying
inappropriate touching:
1. Sexual abuse victims do respond differently to these dolls than non
victims (e.g., among victims sexualized play is more common)
2. Dolls facilitate memory for details of sexual abuse
3. Useful in helping shy, embarrassing, or verbally limited
to talk children about incidents of abuse
male/female
identification
(with depicted genitals)
mom is going through her
pregnancy
CONTROVERSIAL

38. Metacognition:
• Refers to thinking about thinking or knowing about knowing
• Refers to person’s awareness about his or her own cognitive state and
processes
Metacognition involves:
• Evaluating one’s own cognitive skills
• Using strategies to increase the efficiency of memory or learning
• The ability to determine how much knowledge you have and need
• Using mnemonics in rereading or organizing information
• Develops in early adolescence or later, in conjunction with Piaget’s
formal operation stage
• Found in adult intelligence

39. Zeigarnik Effect (1938)
• Bluma Zeigarnik assigned her subjects simple puzzle-like problems
• Subjects allowed to finish half the problems but interrupted and kept
from finishing the other half
• Later, subjects were asked to recall all tasks
• 68% of unfinished tasks were recalled vs. 43% of finished tasks
• Interrupting a subject in middle of task has the effect of leaving him or
her in a state of tension and disequilibrium
• To replace the tension, subject wants to complete the task, and thereby
to remember unfinished tasks better than completed ones