This document discusses theories of cognition and perception across cultures. It presents two stances from the 20th century that argued for universal cognition based on biology and information processing. However, three major challenges are outlined: Wilhelm Wundt's cultural psychology showing culture affects cognition; Vygotsky's view that tools and practices shape unique cognitive tendencies; and Whorf's linguistic relativity theory that language impacts thought. The document examines cross-cultural differences in color perception, numbers, reasoning styles, and perception based on environmental variations. Overall, it argues that while humans possess innate abilities, culture plays a significant role in developing diverse cognitive processes across societies.

1. Cognition andCognition and
PerceptionPerception
A Compilation by Vida DehnadA Compilation by Vida Dehnad ,,
20132013

2. Food for thoughtFood for thought
 What is cognition ?What is cognition ?
 What is perception?What is perception?
 Do we have the same contents ofDo we have the same contents of
mind cross-culturally?mind cross-culturally?
 Do humans have the same information –processingDo humans have the same information –processing
strategies across the globe?strategies across the globe?
 Can weCan we establish common grounds of understandingestablish common grounds of understanding
globally ?globally ?
 Do you defendDo you defend relativismrelativism in the studies of cognition andin the studies of cognition and
perception ?perception ?

3. Two “pro –universalistic” stances in theTwo “pro –universalistic” stances in the
study of cognition in 20study of cognition in 20thth
cent.cent.
 Behaviorism & Learning theorists in earlyBehaviorism & Learning theorists in early
experimental psychology / deficit modelexperimental psychology / deficit model

““Universality of cognition” or “psychic universality” as a result of biology research effect onUniversality of cognition” or “psychic universality” as a result of biology research effect on
psychological research (mainly starting from 1988 to mid 20psychological research (mainly starting from 1988 to mid 20thth
century ).century ).
- use of analogy to find shared species-wide characteristics- use of analogy to find shared species-wide characteristics
- mental mechanisms not only applied to all humans , but to animals- mental mechanisms not only applied to all humans , but to animals
- cross- culturally the same rules- cross- culturally the same rules
►► Cognitivists (from mid 20Cognitivists (from mid 20thth
century /CPDcentury /CPD
model /model /
-- rejected animalistic behaviorism , but still held the samerejected animalistic behaviorism , but still held the same
““universalistic position”universalistic position”
- Analogy between human mind & computer : brain as hardware & cognitive procedures asAnalogy between human mind & computer : brain as hardware & cognitive procedures as
softwaresoftware
- given different inputs across cultures we will have different outputs (behaviors , beliefs ) , but wegiven different inputs across cultures we will have different outputs (behaviors , beliefs ) , but we
still have the same underlying architecture of mind every where.still have the same underlying architecture of mind every where.

4. Richard Shweder 1991 observed that 20Richard Shweder 1991 observed that 20th-th-
century stancescentury stances
mainly concur with the idea of "autonomousmainly concur with the idea of "autonomous ccentralentral
pprocessingrocessing ddevice “, something likeevice “, something like CPUCPU
CPD in this view transcends ecology and socio-culturalCPD in this view transcends ecology and socio-cultural
contexts; the processor is always the samecontexts; the processor is always the same

5. The three major theoretical positions of psychologyThe three major theoretical positions of psychology
& social sciences against universalistic stance& social sciences against universalistic stance
 The first challenge brought fourth by Wilhelm WundtThe first challenge brought fourth by Wilhelm Wundt , the, the
founder of experimental psychology /founder of experimental psychology / folk psychologyfolk psychology laterlater
known as cultural psychology (1916)known as cultural psychology (1916)

higher cognitive processes are affected by cultural practiceshigher cognitive processes are affected by cultural practices
 When culture and history diverge , cognitive processes diverge as wellWhen culture and history diverge , cognitive processes diverge as well

6.  The second challengeThe second challenge by Russian School Of Lev Vygotskyby Russian School Of Lev Vygotsky (1978)(1978) &&
AlexanderAlexander Luria (1971) ;Luria (1971) ; and in West by Michael Cole (1996)& hisand in West by Michael Cole (1996)& his
colleaguescolleagues

7.  The tenets of Vygotsky’s thoughtsThe tenets of Vygotsky’s thoughts
 Human cognition develops in a cultural contextHuman cognition develops in a cultural context
 Cultural context is an accumulated pattern of symbolic & non-symbolicCultural context is an accumulated pattern of symbolic & non-symbolic
tools in the historical existence of a grouptools in the historical existence of a group
 Diverging historical trajectories , practices & tools result in differentDiverging historical trajectories , practices & tools result in different
cognitive tendenciescognitive tendencies
►► The third influential idea challenging cognitive universalityThe third influential idea challenging cognitive universality
was proposed by Benjaminwas proposed by Benjamin Lee WhorfLee Whorf (1956) known as(1956) known as
linguistic relativitylinguistic relativity

8.  The idea here is that the language people speak affects thoughtThe idea here is that the language people speak affects thought
processesprocesses
 When linguistic conventions vary , thought processes vary as wellWhen linguistic conventions vary , thought processes vary as well
 Have Genetic Mutations endowedHave Genetic Mutations endowed
Humans with such higher cognitiveHumans with such higher cognitive
abilities in the process of evolution ?abilities in the process of evolution ?
 Human cognition is culturally dependent in ways that other primateHuman cognition is culturally dependent in ways that other primate
cognition is notcognition is not
 Cultural transmission allows both genetic & social transference ofCultural transmission allows both genetic & social transference of
learning mechanismslearning mechanisms
 So “culture is greatly important since only the “ process of geneticSo “culture is greatly important since only the “ process of genetic
variation “ & “natural selection “ have not led to these higher-ordervariation “ & “natural selection “ have not led to these higher-order
cognitive abilities in humans with this speedcognitive abilities in humans with this speed

9. Knowing that some people don’t haveKnowing that some people don’t have
any word forany word for greengreen, do you think they, do you think they
perceiveperceive greengreen thethe samesame way we doway we do ??
Linguistic relativityLinguistic relativity
– Whorfian hypothesisWhorfian hypothesis
 ColorsColors ( experiment with hunter -gatherer people of Papua( experiment with hunter -gatherer people of Papua
new Guinea with five basic colors & English Speakers withnew Guinea with five basic colors & English Speakers with
foci of 8 colors --result--foci of 8 colors --result-- poorer memory /sensitivitypoorer memory /sensitivity ofof
hunter-gatherers …less vocabulary items for colors )hunter-gatherers …less vocabulary items for colors )
 NumbersNumbers

10. Language and Color PerceptionLanguage and Color Perception

11.  New researches have been exploring whether color
terms affect perception of colors.

12. Categorical perceptions ofCategorical perceptions of
colorscolors

13. Do structural differences between two languages affect
the way children learn to count ?
Do linguistic differences affect numerical reasoning ?
 -- Chinese children found it easier to count the second decade (10-Chinese children found it easier to count the second decade (10-
20) where the base 10 is first learned compared to English children.20) where the base 10 is first learned compared to English children.
 Much of numeric cognition is the result of culturalMuch of numeric cognition is the result of cultural
inventioninvention - for the most part, people have- for the most part, people have some degree of innate mathsome degree of innate math
abilitiesabilities , but most abilities emerge as a result of cultural learning., but most abilities emerge as a result of cultural learning.
 Some cultures do not have number terms beyond 2. For example, theSome cultures do not have number terms beyond 2. For example, the PirahaPiraha
from Amazon have number terms that only correspond to 1, 2, and many.from Amazon have number terms that only correspond to 1, 2, and many.

What happens when theWhat happens when the PirahaPiraha are asked to count beyond 3? (see Gordonare asked to count beyond 3? (see Gordon¹¹,,
2004). They were confused ! / had great difficulty matching an array of items2004). They were confused ! / had great difficulty matching an array of items
more than threemore than three
 ¹¹Gordon, P. (2004). Numerical cognition without words: Evidence from Amazonia.Gordon, P. (2004). Numerical cognition without words: Evidence from Amazonia.
Science, 306, 496–499.Science, 306, 496–499.

15.  The larger the numbers they were asked to represent, the greaterThe larger the numbers they were asked to represent, the greater
their errors were, however, they had some general sense oftheir errors were, however, they had some general sense of
approximate quantities.approximate quantities.
• There are still questions about whether theseThere are still questions about whether these indigenous tribesindigenous tribes
cannot represent numbers because they don’t have related numbercannot represent numbers because they don’t have related number
terms (a Whorfian argument) or because they lack sufficient culturalterms (a Whorfian argument) or because they lack sufficient cultural
learning.learning.

16.  linguistic differences affect spatial , temporal reasoninglinguistic differences affect spatial , temporal reasoning
- Chinese thinkChinese think verticallyvertically about time while English speakers thinkabout time while English speakers think horizontallyhorizontally
- Alfred BloomAlfred Bloom experiment about counterfactual , subjunctive –mood
statements : some languages have more such structures
- Human cognition is influenced by
- Linguistics structures , Social &
cultural structures

17. Deductive reasoning versusDeductive reasoning versus
concrete reasoningconcrete reasoning
 Preference for concrete reasoning / knowledge is inPreference for concrete reasoning / knowledge is in
traditional and sometimes non-literate societiestraditional and sometimes non-literate societies
 Societies affected by industrialization more favorSocieties affected by industrialization more favor
formal logic (deductive thinking )formal logic (deductive thinking )
 -- theoretical sciencetheoretical science
 - adversarial debate- adversarial debate
 Formalization of knowledgeFormalization of knowledge

18. Cultural differences in perceptionCultural differences in perception
carpentered world hypothesis /carpentered world hypothesis / the degree tothe degree to
which the environment is carpenteredwhich the environment is carpentered

19. Pictures borrowed from the following websitesPictures borrowed from the following websites
 www.proprofs.comwww.proprofs.com
 http://ling.yale.edu/history/benjamin-lee-whorfhttp://ling.yale.edu/history/benjamin-lee-whorf
 www.thisisnotthat.comwww.thisisnotthat.com
 https://aims.uchicago.edu/page/1993-richard-shwederhttps://aims.uchicago.edu/page/1993-richard-shweder
 www.vygotskydocumentary.comwww.vygotskydocumentary.com
 http://blogs.transparent.com/language-news/2015/03/18/how-language-changehttp://blogs.transparent.com/language-news/2015/03/18/how-language-change
– https://www.um.ac.ir/https://www.um.ac.ir/
 http://www.michaelbach.de/ot/sze-muelue/index.htmlhttp://www.michaelbach.de/ot/sze-muelue/index.html
 http://www. tehranpress.comhttp://www. tehranpress.com
 http://www.http://www.nikoodel.comnikoodel.com
 www.quora.comwww.quora.com
 www.ihoosh.irwww.ihoosh.ir