Memory involves three main stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Information is encoded using visual, acoustic, or semantic representations when it enters the memory system. It is then stored either in short-term memory (for up to 30 seconds) or long-term memory (which can last a lifetime). Retrieval involves accessing stored information through sequential ordering for short-term memory or associations for long-term memory. Many memory experiments are criticized for having low ecological validity since the laboratory setting and tasks like recalling word lists are artificial compared to real-world memory use.
Understand Attention & Implement it in your Business, Daily Life , By Practicing
Topic
"ATTENTION"
+ Factors of ATTENTION
1- Objective Factors
2- Subjective Factors
+ Span of ATTENTION
+ Distraction of ATTENTION
+ Fluctuation of ATTENTION
the presentation is about the encoding, capacity, retention duration, forgetting and retrieval of information in long term memory. it also introduce several studies done
Understand Attention & Implement it in your Business, Daily Life , By Practicing
Topic
"ATTENTION"
+ Factors of ATTENTION
1- Objective Factors
2- Subjective Factors
+ Span of ATTENTION
+ Distraction of ATTENTION
+ Fluctuation of ATTENTION
the presentation is about the encoding, capacity, retention duration, forgetting and retrieval of information in long term memory. it also introduce several studies done
Slides from a talk by Dr Chris Atherton from the University of Central Lancashire about the brain's limits of attention and cognitive load, and how we can work around that to ensure that we still have people's attention (in education, technical communication, etc)
The study of human memory has been a subject of science and philosophy for thousands of years and has become one of the major topics of interest within cognitive psychology.
But what exactly is memory? How are memories formed? The following overview offers a brief look at what memory is, how it works and how it is organized.
The purpose of this study was to analyze cognitive memory models in humans. This
research uses literature study method. The results and conclusions obtained from this study
are that memory is a complex and varied phenomenon, with memory it will make an
individual’s life feel sustainable, which means humans can relate what happened in the past
with the conditions experienced now. Memory has several stages, namely encoding, storage,
and recall. With music therapy in post-traumatic amnesia patients the abilities that a person
has and do not require conscious processing. The way implicit memory works is by recalling information related to an event or an object that affects actions and thoughts that are carried
out unconsciously. Memory itself has several types of models such as sensory memory, shortterm memory, long-term memory, implicit memory, explicit memory, and flashbulb memory.
With learning about various memory models, it is hoped that individuals will understand more and increase knowledge about memory and remembering.
The Learning and Memory ConnectionKimberly Kocak, Pamela Fogle.docxcherry686017
The Learning and Memory Connection
Kimberly Kocak, Pamela Foglesong, Brianna Duda, Lizette Villavicencio, Maisha Wade
PSY/340
June 8, 2015
Dr. Purvi Patel
Memory and Learning
Memory and learning perform a complicated dance involving multiple areas of the brain. Memory and Learning can be affected by numerous events from Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), disease and stress, just to name a few. Memory is implicit for learning but we have many different kinds of memory and learning. We have implicit memory, explicit memory, procedural memory, episodic memory, long-term and short-term, sensory, sematic and working memories. Each play a role in how we learn and interact with the world and view our past, present and future. In this presentation we will explore some of the interactions between memory and learning, look at a few case studies and talk about types of treatments that are available, depending on the area and extent of damage to certain parts of the brain.
http://psychcentral.com/news/2008/03/12/stress-affects-learning-and-memory/2031.html/ Image
2
Neuroanatomy of Learning and Memory
How do we learn?
Amygdala: An almond shaped mass of nuclei that is associated with emotions, aggression, and memory. The amygdala receives input about stimuli associated by learning with primary reinforcers.
Hippocampus: The hippocampus is useful in learning a certain amount of information. According to Rolls (2000), “the hippocampus does appear to be necessary to learn certain types of information, which have been characterized as declarative, or knowing that, as contrasted or procedural, or knowing how, which is pared in amnesia.”
Learning is a behavior, in which an individual acquires information. Learning is obtaining knowledge, in which the brain is able to retain and store away. In order for knowledge to be stored away, it needs memory, so, without memory, learning would not be possible. “Not only does the amygdala receive information about primary reinforcers (such as taste and touch), but it also receives inputs about stimuli (e.g. visual ones) that can be associated by learning with primary reinforcers” (Rolls, 2000). Primary reinforcers are used within operant conditioning (learning technique), which are used as a reward for a specific behavior. Primary reinfrocers do not need to be learned, meaning, they come naturally.
3
Neuroanatomy of Learning and Memory
How do we remember?
The limbic system is important in the role of learning and memory. The two major parts of the limbic system responsible for memory include: amygdala and hippocampus.
“Small to moderate amounts of cortisol activate the amygdala and hippocampus, where they enhance the storage and consolidation of recent experiences” (Kalat, 2013). Cortisol is an important part of storing memories.
The limbic system is located ...
Two simple answers to the question of forgetting .
The memory has disappeared i.e. forgetting in short term memory
The memory is still stored in the memory system but, for some reason, it cannot be retrieved i.e. forgetting in long term memory.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
Leaders are often faced with ethical conundrums(a confusing and difficult problem or question). So how can they determine when they’re inching toward dangerous territory? There are three main psychological dynamics that lead to crossing moral lines.
There’s omnipotence: when someone feels so aggrandized and entitled that they believe the rules of decent behavior don’t apply to them.
Consider cultural numbness: when others play along and gradually begin to accept and embody deviant norms.
Finally, when people don’t speak up because they are thinking of more immediate rewards, we see justified neglect.
Generally most people mean well, but simply execute their job poorly sometimes and sometimes, there are BAD bosses. We must learn “to Work "on Bad Boss
According to dictionary.com, “to work” something or someone is to put them into effective operation, to operate that thing or person for productive purposes.
Put your Bad Boss into effective operation to get whatever you want in your job or career by learning your boss’s secret desire and secret fear
Two biggest issues of Bad Boss are:
They can negatively impact our work performance.
They can make life miserable
We often hear “being difficult.” about Bad Boss. It’s hard to know exactly where the difficulty lie. All we know is it is difficult to work successfully with this person.
An incompetent person is someone who is
Functionally inadequate or
Insufficient in Knowledge, Skills, Judgment, or Strength
Mindset is a mental attitude that determines how we interpret and respond to situations.
Dweck has found that it is your mindset that plays a significant role in determining achievement and success.
A mindset refers to whether you believe qualities such as intelligence and talent are fixed or changeable traits.
People with a fixed mindset believe that these qualities are inborn, fixed, and unchangeable.
Those with a growth mindset, on the other hand, believe that these abilities can be developed and strengthened by way of commitment and hard work.
Story of Katalin Karikó, a researcher who won the Nobel prize for medicine for her work on modifying the RNA molecule to avoid triggering a harmful immune response is a classical example of mindset.
Yet, her life was full of rejection and doubt.
Her achievement had much to do with her mindset.
A theory is a based upon a hypothesis and backed by evidence.
A theory presents a concept or idea that is testable.
In science, a theory is not merely a guess.
A theory is a fact-based framework for describing a phenomenon.
In psychology, theories are used to provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
Hence study of Psychology theory is essential for SSB and all types of Interviewas it helps us to understand our own developmental psychology.k
Personality theorists should study normal individuals
All behavior is interactive
The person must be studied in terms of interactions with their environment
The brain is the locus of personality
There is a biological basis to personality
Definition of Personality
1- Personality is an abstraction formulated by a theorist.
2- It refers to series of events that ideally span over life time from childhood to adulthood
3-It reflects novel, unique, recurrent and enduring patterns of behaviours – his education and training .
4- Personality is located in brain- imagination, perception
5.Personality comprises the person’s central organizing and governing processes, whose function is to
Resolve conflicts,
Satisfy needs, and
Plan for future goals.
” Emotions are complex psychological states involving three distinct components: a subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response”
"Discovering Psychology," by Don Hockenbury and Sandra E. Hockenbury
In 1972, psychologist Paul Ekman suggested that there are six basic emotions that are universal throughout human cultures: fear, disgust, anger, surprise, joy, and sadness.
In the 1980s, Robert Plutchik introduced another emotion classification system known as the wheel of emotions. This model demonstrated how different emotions can be combined or mixed together, much like the way an artist mixes primary colors to create other colors.
Plutchik proposed eight primary emotional dimensions: joy vs. sadness, anger vs. fear, trust vs. disgust, and surprise vs. anticipation.
These emotions can then be combined to create others, such as happiness + anticipation = excitement.
In 1999, Ekman expanded his list to include a number of other basic emotions, including embarrassment, excitement, contempt, shame, pride, satisfaction, and amusement
Anger is an intense emotion you feel when
Something has gone wrong or
Someone has wronged you.
It is typically characterized by feelings of
Stress,
Frustration, and
Irritation.
Anger is a perfectly normal response to frustrating or difficult situations.
Anger only becomes a problem when
It’s excessively displayed and
Begins to affect your daily functioning and the way you relate with people.
Anger can range in intensity, from a slight annoyance to rage.
It can sometimes be excessive or irrational.
In these cases, it can be hard to keep the emotion in check and could cause you to behave in ways you wouldn’t otherwise behave.
Cognitive distortions are
Negative or irrational patterns of thinking.
Simply ways that Impostor Syndrome convinces us to believe things that aren’t really true.
Inaccurate thought patterns that
Reinforce our negative self perception and
Keep us feeling bad about ourselves
These negative thought patterns can play a role in
Diminishing our motivation,
Lowering our self-esteem
Contributing to problems like
Anxiety,
Depression, and
Substance use.
Trauma Bonding is the attachment an abused person feels for their abuser, specifically in a relationship with a cyclical pattern of abuse.
Is created due to a cycle of abuse and positive reinforcement
After each circumstance of abuse, the abuser professes love, regret, and trying to make the relationship feel safe and needed for the abused person.
Hence Abused
Finds leaving an abusive situation confusing and overwhelming
Involves positive and/or loving feelings for an abuser
Also feel attached to and dependent on their abuser.
Emotional abuse involves controlling another person by using emotions to Criticize , Embarrass ,Shame ,Blame or
Manipulate .
To be abusive there must be a consistent pattern of abusive words and bullying behaviours that Wear down a person’s Self-esteem and Undermine Their mental health.
Most common in married relationships,
Mental or emotional abuse can occur in any relationship—including among
Friends
Family members and
Co-workers
Attachment-related patterns that differ between individuals are commonly called "attachment styles."
There seems to be an association between a person’s attachment characteristics early in life and in adulthood, but the correlations are far from perfect.
Many adults feel secure in their relationships and comfortable depending on others (echoing “secure” attachment in children).
Others tend to feel anxious about their connection with close others—or prefer to avoid getting close to them in the first place (echoing “insecure” attachment in children).
Borderline personality disorder, characterized by a longing for intimacy and a hypersensitivity to rejection, have shown a high prevalence and severity of insecure attachment.
Attachment styles in adulthood (similar to attachment patterns in children):
Secure
Anxious-preoccupied (high anxiety, low avoidance)
Dismissing-avoidant (low anxiety, high avoidance)
Fearful-avoidant (high anxiety, high avoidance)
Conduct disorder is an ongoing pattern of behaviour marked by emotional and behavioural problems.
Ways in which Children with conduct disorder behave are
Angry,
Aggressive,
Argumentative, and
Disruptive ways.
It is a diagnosable mental health condition that is characterized by patterns of violating
Societal norms and
Rights of others
It's estimated that around 3% of school-aged children have conduct disorder and require professional treatment .
It is more common in boys than in girls.
Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a psychiatric disorder that typically emerges in childhood, between ages 6 and 8, and can last throughout adulthood.
ODD is more than just normal childhood tantrums
Frequency and severity of ODD causes difficulty at home and at school.
Children with ODD also struggle with learning problems related to their behavior.
Two types of oppositional defiant disorder:
Childhood-onset ODD:
Present from an early age
Requires early intervention and treatment to prevent it from progressing into a more serious conduct disorder
Adolescent-onset ODD:
Begins suddenly in the middle- and high-school years, causing conflict at home and in school
There have been at least 13 different types of intelligence that have been identified so far.
These different ways of being smart can help people perform in different areas from their personal life, business, to sports and relationships.
Attachment is an emotional bond with another person. John Bowlby described attachment as a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings.“
Earliest bonds formed by children (with caregivers) have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life and Attachment so developed
Serves to keep the infant close to the mother, thus improving the child's chances of survival.
Are innate drive Children are born with and is a product of evolutionary processes
Emerges and are regulated through the process of natural selection,
Are characterized by clear behavioural and motivation patterns.
Nurturance and responsiveness were the primary determinants of attachment.
Children who maintained proximity to an attachment figure were more likely to
Receive comfort and protection, and
More likely to survive to adulthood.
e-RUPI is a person and purpose-specific cashless e-voucher designed to guarantee
that the stored money value reaches its intended beneficiary and can only be used for
the specific benefit or purpose for which it was intended. The idea is to create a minimal
logistics, leak-proof delivery mechanism for a wide range of government Direct Benefit
Transfer (DBT) programs across the country. The digital e-voucher platform can also
be used by organizations who wish to support welfare services through e-RUPI instead
of cash
The term ‘Moonlighting’ became popular in America when people started working a second job in addition to their regular 9-to-5 jobs. Since the rise of the work-from-home concept during the pandemic, employees got free time after work hours. While some took up their hobby in their free time, others started searching for part-time jobs. Especially in the IT industry, employees took up two jobs simultaneously and took advantage of the remote working model. This concept of working for two companies/organisations is referred to as moonlighting.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
1. by
Col Mukteshwar Prasad(Retd),
MTech(IIT Delhi) ,CE(I),FIE(I),FIETE,FISLE,FInstOD,AMCSI
Contact -+919007224278,
e-mail -muktesh_prasad@yahoo.co.in
for book ”Decoding Services Selection Board” and
SSB guidance and training at Shivnandani Edu and Defence
Academy,Kolkata,India
Stages of Memory - Encoding Storage and
Retrieval
Ref- Saul McLeod published 2007
(Cognitive Psychology)
2.
3. Stages of Memory - Encoding Storage and
Retrieval
“Memory is the process of maintaining information over
time.” (Matlin, 2005)
“Memory is the means by which we draw on our past
experiences in order to use this information in the present’
(Sternberg, 1999).
Memory is the term given to the structures and processes
involved in the storage and subsequent retrieval of
information.
Memory is essential to all our lives.
Without a memory of the past we cannot operate in the
present or think about the future.
We would not be able to remember what we did yesterday,
what we have done today or what we plan to do tomorrow.
Without memory we could not learn anything.
Memory is involved in processing vast amounts of
information.
4. Stages of Memory - Encoding Storage and
Retrieval
For psychologists the term memory covers three important aspects of
information processing:
1. Memory Encoding
When information comes into our memory system (from sensory input), it
needs to be changed into a form that the system can cope with, so that it can
be stored.
Think of this as similar to changing your money into a different currency when
you travel from one country to another.
For example, a word which is seen (in a book) may be stored if it is changed
(encoded) into a sound or a meaning (i.e. semantic processing).
There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed):
1. Visual (picture)
2. Acoustic (sound)
3. Semantic (meaning)
For example, how do you remember a telephone number you have looked up
in the phone book?
If you can see it then you are using visual coding, but if you are repeating it to
yourself you are using acoustic coding (by sound).
5. Stages of Memory - Encoding Storage and
Retrieval
1. Memory Encoding…. you are using acoustic coding (by sound).
Evidence suggests that this is the principle coding system in short term
memory (STM) is acoustic coding.
When a person is presented with a list of numbers and letters, they will try to
hold them in STM by rehearsing them (verbally).
Rehearsal is a verbal process regardless of whether the list of items is
presented acoustically (someone reads them out), or visually (on a sheet of
paper).
The principle encoding system in long term memory (LTM) appears to be
semantic coding (by meaning).
However, information in LTM can also be coded both visually and acoustically.
2. Memory Storage
This concerns the nature of memory stores, i.e.
where the information is stored,
how long the memory lasts for (duration),
how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and
what kind of information is held.
The way we store information affects the way we retrieve it.
There has been a significant amount of research regarding the differences
between Short Term Memory (STM ) and Long Term Memory (LTM).
6. Stages of Memory - Encoding Storage and
Retrieval
2. Memory Storage…. Short Term Memory (STM ) and Long Term
Memory (LTM).
Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory.
Miller (1956) put this idea forward and he called it the magic number 7.
He though that short-term memory capacity was 7 (plus or minus 2) items
because it only had a certain number of “slots” in which items could be stored.
However, Miller didn’t specify the amount of information that can be held in
each slot.
Indeed, if we can “chunk” information together we can store a lot more
information in our short-term memory.
In contrast the capacity of LTM is thought to be unlimited.
Information can only be stored for a brief duration in STM (0-30 seconds), but
LTM can last a lifetime.
3. Memory Retrieval
This refers to getting information out storage.
If we can’t remember something, it may be because we are unable to retrieve
it.
When we are asked to retrieve something from memory, the differences
between STM and LTM become very clear.
7. Stages of Memory - Encoding Storage and
Retrieval
3. Memory Retrieval… between STM and LTM become very clear.
STM is stored and retrieved sequentially.
For example, if a group of participants are given a list of words to remember,
and then asked to recall the fourth word on the list, participants go through the
list in the order they heard it in order to retrieve the information.
LTM is stored and retrieved by association.
This is why you can remember what you went upstairs for if you go back to the
room where you first thought about it.
Organizing information can help aid retrieval.
You can organize information in sequences (such as alphabetically, by size or
by time).
Imagine a patient being discharged from hospital whose treatment involved
taking various pills at various times, changing their dressing and doing
exercises.
If the doctor gives these instructions in the order which they must be carried
out throughout the day (i.e. in sequence of time), this will help the patient
remember them.
8. Criticisms of Memory Experiments
A large part of the research on memory is based on experiments conducted
in laboratories.
Those who take part in the experiments - the participants - are asked to
perform tasks such as recalling lists of words and numbers.
Both the setting - the laboratory - and the tasks are a long way from everyday
life.
In many cases, the setting is artificial and the tasks fairly meaningless. Does
this matter?
Psychologists use the term ecological validity to refer to the extent to which
the findings of research studies can be generalized to other settings.
An experiment has high ecological validity if its findings can be generalized,
that is applied or extended, to settings outside the laboratory.
It is often assumed that if an experiment is realistic or true-to-life, then there
is a greater likelihood that its findings can be generalized.
If it is not realistic (if the laboratory setting and the tasks are artificial) then
there is less likelihood that the findings can be generalized.
In this case, the experiment will have low ecological validity.
9. Criticisms of Memory Experiments
Many experiments designed to investigate memory have been criticized for
having low ecological validity.
First, the laboratory is an artificial situation.
People are removed from their normal social settings and asked to take part
in a psychological experiment.
They are directed by an 'experimenter' and may be placed in the company of
complete strangers.
For many people, this is a brand new experience, far removed from their
everyday lives.
Will this setting affect their actions, will they behave normally?
Often, the tasks participants are asked to perform can appear artificial and
meaningless.
Few, if any, people would attempt to memorize and recall a list of unconnected
words in their daily lives.
And it is not clear how tasks such as this relate to the use of memory in
everyday life.
The artificiality of many experiments has led some researchers to question
whether their findings can be generalized to real life.
As a result, many memory experiments have been criticized for having low
ecological validity.
10. Criticisms of Memory Experiments
References
Matlin, M. W. (2005). Cognition.
Crawfordsville: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number
seven, plus or minus two: Some limits
on our capacity for processing
information. Psychological Review, 63
(2): 81–97.
Sternberg, R. J. (1999). Cognitive
psychology (2 nd ed.). Fort Worth, TX:
Harcourt Brace College Publishers.