The document outlines the processes of memory, including encoding, storage, and retrieval, while discussing theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin model and Baddeley's working memory model. It emphasizes that deeper processing and elaboration enhance memory retention, alongside the effects of interference and context dependency on retrieval. Additionally, it addresses the reliability of eyewitness testimony and the complexities of repressed memories.

1. 1
Memory
Tiffany Daniels, M.S.
1
Let’s Start With a Memory
Challenge
• I’m going to read you a grocery list. Use
whatever memory strategies that you
think will be most effective to memorize
the items. When I am done, write down
as many items as you can remember.
You do not have to remember them in
order.
2
Key Terms
• Memory - The retention of information
over time through the processes of
encoding, storage, & retrieval.
• Encoding - Process by which
information gets into memory storage
• Storage - Retention of information over
time and the representation of

2. information in memory.
• Retrieval - The memory process of
taking information out of storage.
3
Encoding
• Requires selective attention
• Divided attention - occurs when a person
must attend to several things at once
• Selective/Sustained attention (focusing on
one thing for a prolonged period of time) is
better than divided attention in terms of
retrieval
4
Encoding
• Levels of Processing Model (Craik &
Lockhart 1972)
• Shallow level: The sensory of physical
features are analyzed.
• Intermediate level: The stimulus is
recognized and given a label.
• Deepest level: Information is processed
semantically, in terms of meaning.
5

3. “All I see is a bunch of ink on
this page! I’m so zoned out, I’m
not even making out the words!”
“I am reading the words but
I don’t understand it. I keep
reading the same line over
and over!”
“Not only do I understand
what I just read, but I can
apply it to myself, create
examples, and even share
what I learned with a friend!”
6
2
Encoding
• An individual’s memories are better if he or
she uses the deepest processing level.
• Memories are also better if using
elaboration when encoding.
• Elaboration: extensiveness of processing
at any given level of memory.
• Self-references, generating examples, and
using imagery are better than simple rote
memorization

4. 7
Encoding
• Flashcards are a type of rote memorization –
how effective are they in the long term?
• It is also important to be motivated to
remember
• How easy is it to encode, store, and retrieve
information for your least favorite class?
8
Memory Storage
• The Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968)
• Storage involves 3 separate systems
• Sensory Memory: time frames of a fraction
of a second to several seconds
• Short-Term Memory (STM): time frames up
to 30 seconds
• Long Term Memory (LTM): time frames up
to a lifetime
9
Sensory Memory
• Includes:
• Iconic memory (visual sensory memory) -
we can remember things that quickly flash

5. before our eyes
• Echoic memory (auditory sensory memory)
- we can remember sounds after the fact,
even if we weren’t attending to them.
10
Short-Term Memory
• Capacity is 7 ± 2 (called “Miller’s Magical
Number)
• Means we can usually remember on
average, between 5-9 items in a list
(example: phone numbers, Social Sec. #)
• Can improve short-term memory by using
rehearsal and chunking.
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Short-Term Memory
• Rehearsal- the process of repetitively
verbalizing or thinking about information.
• Chunking- grouping familiar stimuli
together that exceed the 7 ± 2 limit
(memory span) and storing them as a
familiar unit.
• This saves space and allows for more
storage capacity.
12

6. 3
Chunking Examples
The Truffle Shuffle is NOT an example of Chunking, but it sure
is fun
• Not 3-7-9-8-8-5-0
• But 379-8850 (Phone numbers)
• Not 3-2-5-5-6-8-9-3-2
• But 325- 56- 8932 (Social Security
Numbers)
• Recent research suggests that without
chunking & rehearsal, our true STM
capacity might only be 4 ± 1
13
Baddeley’s (2001) Working
Memory Model
• Baddeley views short term-memory as
more of a 3-part Working memory
system
• Temporarily holds information as people
perform cognitive tasks. (kind of like the
multiples windows you can have open at
once on your computer)

7. • Includes the phonological loop,
visuospatial working memory, and central
executive.
14
Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
• Phonological loop- speech-
based info about sounds of
language
• Visuospatial scratch pad
(aka visuospatial working
memory)- allows people to
temporarily hold and mentally
manipulate visual images.
Your visuospatial sketchpad is what helps you know
what the figure to the right of this caption is.
15
Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
• Central Executive: integrates information
not only from the phonological loop and
visuospatial scratch pad, but also from long-
term memory. Used in planning, attention,
and organizing.
16
Long-Term Memory
• Relatively permanent type of memory that stores
huge amounts of information for a long time.

8. Includes explicit and implicit memory.
• Explicit memory - the conscious recollection of
information such as specific facts or events, and
at least in humans, information that can be
verbally communicated.
• Two types of explicit memory: episodic memory
and semantic memory.
17
Explicit Memory
• Episodic memory - retention of
information about the where, when, and
what of life’s happenings.
**Autobiographical
• Semantic memory - a person’s
knowledge about the world. Includes areas
of expertise, general knowledge like what
you learn in school, and everyday
knowledge such as meanings of words,
famous people, important places, etc.
18
4
Explicit Memory
• Label each memory with either an E or S:

9. 1) The Eiffel Tower is located in Paris:_____
2) Visiting the Eiffel Tower on vacation:_____
3) Senior prom is a dance for 12th graders:_____
4) My first kiss:________
5) Wilhelm Wundt is the founding father of
psychology:_______
6) The first time I attended psychology class:____
19
Explicit Memory
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCNRFnBbeX0
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Long-Term Memory
• Implicit memory - Memory in which
behavior is affected by prior experience
without that experience being consciously
recollected.
• Includes procedural memory, classical
conditioning, and priming.
21
Long-Term Memory
• Procedural memory - memory for skills
(how to ride a bike, brush your teeth, type
on the computer, drive a car)
• Classical conditioning - the automatic

10. learning of associations between stimuli.
**This type of learning involves
nonconscious, implicit memory
22
Long-Term Memory
• Priming - a type of implicit memory
process involving the activation of
information that people already have in
storage to help them remember new
information better and faster.
• For example, let’s say I give you the
following cues, and you need to fill in the
blank to form a word.
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Priming
• ho____ pe____ tr_____
In a study, individuals who had been primed
through the presentation of material
reflecting positive feelings are more likely
to subsequently fill in the blanks with the
words “hope” “peace” and “trust” rather
than neutral words such as “horn”
“peach” and “trout”
24
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCNRFnBbeX0

11. 5
Priming
• In another study, people who were asked to find
aggressive words in a word find puzzle (such as
“rude,” “fight,” and “complain”) were more
likely to interrupt the experimenter following the
experiment than those who were presented with
positive words (such as polite, friendly, and
sensitive). Not only did the people presented
with positive words NOT interrupt, but they
lingered around for 10 minutes politely waiting
for the experimenter’s attention.
25
Priming
• Similarly, people presented with words in
a word find task such as “achieve” “win”
and “compete” are more likely to do
better on a later puzzle task than
individuals presented with neutral words.
• Clearly, priming can have a major impact
on our behavior and we don’t even
realize it!
26
Memory Retrieval
• Retrieval - the memory process
of taking information out of

12. storage. Very much dependent
on the circumstances under
which a memory was encoded
and the way it was retained.
• Let’s revisit our grocery list
challenge!!!
27
Memory Retrieval
• Serial position effect: the tendency to
recall the items at the beginning and end of
a list more readily than those in the middle
• Primacy effect - better recall for items at
the beginning of a list
• Recency effect - better recall for items at
the end of the list.
28
Serial Position Effect
• Beginning items
receive more
rehearsal
• Later items may
still be in
working
memory, and
easier to recall

13. Job Interview Example
29
Retrieval
• Two other factors involved in retrieval are the
nature of the cues that can prompt your memory,
and the retrieval task that you set for yourself.
• Example Recall vs. Recognition
• Recall - individual has to retrieve previously
learned information (ex: essay test)
• Recognition: the individual only has to identify
learned items (ex: multiple choice tests)
• Generally individuals do better with recognition
vs. recall tasks.
30
6
Retrieval
• Encoding Specificity Principle:
Information present at the time of encoding
or learning tends to be effective as a
retrieval cue.
• Example: If you see me regularly teaching
this class, you will recognize me when you

14. walk in the door. However, if you see me at
a restaurant or bar, you might not recognize
me out of the context.
31
Retrieval
• Context-dependent memory - People remember
better when they attempt to recall information in
the same context in which they learned it.
• Based on this principle, it is best to sit in the
same classroom and same desk while learning
AND when taking the test. The desk can act as a
cue. “Ok, I was sitting right here when she talked
about learning, now what did she say about
positive reinforcement?”
32
Context-dependent memory
• In one study, individuals learned
material either under water or on
land. Their performance was better
if they were recalling the material
in the same context in which they
encoded it. That is, individuals who
were under water while learning
performed best when they were
under water while recalling.
33
Retrieval

15. • State-dependent memory - people
remember information better when their
psychological state or mood is similar at
encoding and retrieval.
• Explains why those of you who have
anxiety during tests may not perform as
well. You were calm during encoding,
and stressed out during retrieval.
34
Special Cases of Retrieval
• Autobiographical memories
• Emotional/Flashbulb memories
• Traumatic Events
• Repressed Memories
• Eyewitness Testimony
35
Autobiographical Memories
• Special form of episodic memory that
includes a person’s recollections of his or
her life experiences.
• Includes: life time periods (ex: the high
school years), general events (ex: senior
prom), and event-specific knowledge (ex:
my date was a jerk)
• Might not be entirely accurate - subject to
reconstruction with the passage of time.

16. 36
7
Flashbulb Memories
• The memory of emotionally significant
events that people often recall more
accurately and vividly than everyday events
• Example: Can you remember exactly where
you were, what you were doing, on 9/11?
• Can be very accurate over time, however,
flashbulb memories are subject to distortion
based upon hearing others’ recollections of
the same events.
37
Memory for Traumatic Events
• “Can be so arousing emotionally as to
almost leave a scar on the brain’s
tissue” - William James
• Usually more accurate than memory for
ordinary events, however the memory
can be so traumatic that individuals may
distort the truth to protect themselves
psychologically.
38

17. Repressed Memories
• Repression - defense mechanism by which
a person is so traumatized by an event that
he or she forgets it and then forgets the act
of forgetting. Also called motivated
forgetting.
• Motivated forgetting - act of forgetting
something because it is so painful or
anxiety-laden that to remember it is
intolerable (ex: childhood sexual abuse,
rape, war crimes)
39
Repressed Memories
• The topic of repressed memories is still very
controversial.
• Do repressed memories even exist?
• When a repressed memory comes to the surface
is it real or implanted?
• Should repressed memories be admissible in
court?
40
Eyewitness Testimony
• Elizabeth Loftus has
conducted some
groundbreaking

18. studies showing the
imperfections of
memory.
41
Elizabeth Loftus
• The misinformation effect occurs when
participant’s recall of an event they witnessed
is altered by introducing misleading post-
event information.
• Example: Jean Piaget and the hero Nanny.
42
8
Jean Piaget and the Hero Nanny
• One day when Jean Piaget was a child his
nanny (he came from a wealthy family) took
him to the park. Hours later, they had not
returned and Jean’s parents phoned the
police. Shortly after, Jean and the Nanny
returned. The nanny noted that, while in
the park, a man had come and attempted to
kidnap Jean, and the nanny had fought the
man off and then hid till it was safe to come
back home.
43

19. Jean Piaget and the Hero Nanny
• His parents were extremely grateful and
rewarded the nanny. They frequently told
stories about her and the event, and Jean, as
he grew older, remembered and could recount
the man, the scratches on his face as the
nanny fought him off, and a police officer
coming to their aid. Years later, when he was
15, the nanny wrote a letter to Jean’s parents
to admit she had made the whole story up, and
had simply lost track of time but didn’t want to
lose her job. This story illustrates the fallibility
of human memory.
44
Loftus, cont.
• Loftus would
show students
pictures of a
car accident
and then ask
them leading
questions.
45
• Example: Did you see the stop sign clearly
marked?
• Many “eyewitnesses” will respond yes, as
the question leads you to believe there is
no question that the stop sign was there.

20. • In fact, if you take a second look, there
was no stop sign in the photo at all.
• Shows the imperfection of memory, and
“eyewitness” testimony.
46
What we have learned about
eyewitness testimony
• Can contain errors
• Between 2000 - 10,000 people are wrongfully
convicted each year in the U.S. because of faulty
eyewitness testimony.
• People are less likely to recognize individual
differences among people of another ethnic group
when identifying criminals
• People often identify a member of another ethnic
group as the criminal when it was actually a
member of their own group (major bias).
47
So why do we forget?
• Failures in encoding or retrieval (or both!)
• Encoding failure - the information was never
entered into long-term memory.
• For example, without looking ahead in the notes,
can you describe the details of a penny? Which
way does Abe Lincoln face? Which side is the

21. date on? What (if anything) is written on the
opposite side of the date? What does it say at the
top of the penny? We see pennies everyday, but
some of us have never encoded them into long-
term memory.
48
9
Encoding failure
• Here is an example
of a real penny.
Did you remember
accurately?
• What about the
Don’t Walk sign?
49
Retrieval Failure
• Interference theory - people forget not
because memories are lost from storage but
because other information gets in the way of
what they want to remember. Retrieval cues
are overloaded.
• Proactive interference - occurs when material
that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of
material learned later

22. • Retroactive interference - occurs when
material learned later disrupts the retrieval of
information learned earlier
50
Proactive Interference
• Let’s say you study for biology first,
psychology second, then take a psychology
test. You find it difficult to answer
questions on the psychology test because
you keep thinking about biology. This is
proactive interference (the interference is
moving forward in time)
51
Retroactive Interference
• Let’s say you study psychology first,
biology second, then you take your
psychology test. The biology information is
going to interfere with the psychology
information when you are taking your test.
This is called retroactive interference
because new material affects what you
learned in the past (the interference is
moving backward in time)
52
Interference Theory
• Another example of interference happens
when you are meeting new people.

23. 53
Retrieval Failure
• Tip-of-the Tongue Phenomenon - the
“effortful retrieval” that occurs when people
are confident that they know something but
cannot pull it out of memory.
• The retrieval cues are not strong enough.
We may only be able to remember what the
words starts with, or the number of syllables,
but we can’t retrieve the word itself.
54
10
Retrieval Failure -
Prospective Memory
• Whereas retrospective memory is
remembering the past, prospective
memory involves remembering to do
something in the future (ex: remembering to
go to an appointment)
55
Prospective Memory
• Time-based prospective memory - intention to
engage in a given behavior after a specified

24. amount of time has gone by (“In 20 minutes, I’m
going to take a break)
• Event-based prospective memory - intention to
engage in a given behavior when it is elicited by
some external event or cue (“When I see Gwen, I
need to give her a phone message)
56
Prospective Memory
• Research has shown that people aren’t very
good at time-based events. (for example,
they get involved with other tasks and forget
to perform the prospective task after 20
minutes have elapsed), and that event-
based cues are often produce more success
in prospective memory.
• Lesson learned here? Use a lot of post-its, a
calendar/planner, and tie strings around
your fingers :)
57
Retrieval Failure - Amnesia
• Amnesia - the loss of memory
• Retrograde Amnesia - A memory disorder
that involves memory loss for a segment of
the past but not for new events.
• Anterograde Amnesia - A memory
disorder that affects the retention of new

25. information and events
58
Retrograde Amnesia
• The person loses memories for events that
occurred prior to the injury (mostly explicit
memories).
• Example: A person in a severe car accident
comes out of a coma, and the earliest thing they
can recall is one week before the accident
happened. In some cases, people can lose years,
even sometimes decades. Rare to have
absolutely NO idea of who you are.
59
Anterograde Amnesia
• A person loses memories for
events that occur after the
injury.
• Essentially an inability to form
any new memories into Long-
Term memory.
• See: Memento (2000)
60
11

26. The Story of H.M.
• H.M. was a man who, in 1953, underwent a
bilateral hippocampectomy to help to relieve
the debilitating effects he was having from
intractable epilepsy.
• After surgery, H.M. completely lost the
ability to make new memories.
61
• In the movie “50 First Dates”, the character
Ten Second Tom is based off of H.M.
“Hi, I’m Tom!!!”
62
N.A.
• N.A. was a soldier stationed in California.
He was studying quietly in his room when
his barracks roommate, an accomplished
fencer, came in and started practicing in
the room. N.A. got up just as his roommate
was thrusting forward, and the roommates
fencing foil went right up N.A.’s nose, and
into his brain, causing damage to the
Dorsomedial Nucleus of the Thalamus.
63
N.A.
• Also experienced a profound amnesia.

27. • Ironically, this same type of incident
happened again recently to another case
in the literature.
• Moral of the story: Don’t ever
let fencers become your roommates J
64
Study Tips
• Pay Attention
• Minimize Interference and distractions
• Elaboration
• Organize the material (ex: Hierarchies)
• Self-references
• Generate examples
• Imagery
• Chunking
• Test Yourself
• Learn by Teaching
• Mnemonic devices: Method of
Loci, Keyword Method,
Acronyms
65
Study Tips
• Use these strategies frequently, not just
the night before the test!
• Be rested, well-nourished, calm, and sober
while learning the material and during the
test!

28. The End!
You can wake up
now! Class is over!
66
MOHA 580
Related Course Objectives
NCHL Competency Definition
Criterion
Met or Not Met
Please Indicate
Communication Skills 1 - Writing
L.1
L.2
L.3
1,2,3,4,5,
6,7,8
The ability to use written communications in formal and
informal situations to
convey meaning, build shared understanding, and productively
move agendas forward.
L.1 Uses Generally Accepted English Grammar - Uses subject-
verb agreement and parallel structure; Uses rules of punctuation
and sentence and paragraph construction; Uses concise thematic
construction
L.2 Writes Clearly and Persuasively – Uses fi rst-person
appropriately; avoids use of generalities and imprecise language
(e.g., clichés); ensures technical material is conveyed clearly
according to the audience
L.3 Prepares Effective Written Business Cases and Reports -
Uses accurate and complete presentation of facts; Uses logical

29. presentation of arguments pro and con; Develops well-reasoned
recommendations; Effectively balances
writing with graphical communications (e.g., charts,
scorecards); Prepares concise executive summaries.
Reflection
Information Seeking
L.1
L2
L3
L4
L5
2,3,4,5,6,7,8
An underlying curiosity and desire to know more about things,
people, and issues, including the desire for knowledge and
staying current with health, organizational, industry, and
professional trends and developments. It
includes pressing for more precise information; resolving
discrepancies by asking a series of questions; and scanning for
potential opportunities or information that may be of future use,
as well as staying current and seeking best practices for
adoption.
L.1 Recognizes Patterns Based on Prior Experience - Sees
patterns, trends, or missing pieces/linkages in information;
Notices when a current situation is similar or dissimilar to a
past situation, identifies the similarities and/or
differences, and takes action accordingly
L.2 Applies Proven Concepts or Trends – Looks at current
situations using knowledge of theoretical principles, past
occurrences and/or trends; Applies and modifies concepts or
methods appropriately
L.3 Clarifies Complex Ideas or Situations - Provides new

30. perspective on challenges by making complex ideas or
situations clearer, simpler, and/or more understandable (e.g., re-
framing the problem, use of analogy); Assembles
ideas, issues, and observations into a clear and useful
explanation; Restates existing observations or knowledge in a
simpler fashion; Translates intricate technical information into
terms everyone can understand; “boils down”
information
L.4 Creates New Concepts or Breakthrough Thinking - Creates
new ways of explaining situations or resolving problems that
are not obvious to others and not based on prior experience;
Looks at things in new ways that yield new or innovative
approaches — breakthrough thinking; Shifts the paradigm by
creating a new line of thought
L.5 Fosters an Innovation-Supportive Culture - Creates
platforms and/or processes that support staff in identifying and
pursuing new approaches to their work; encourages innovative
thinkers to develop and test their ideas; Seeks
partnerships and other collaborations that can provide support
for innovation
Reflection
Professional and Social Responsibility
L1
L2
L3
L4
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8

31. The demonstration of ethics, sound professional practices,
social accountability, and community stewardship. Acting in
ways that are consistent with one’s values and what one says is
important.
L.1 Acts Openly and Honestly - Actions are consistent with
organization’s expressed core values; Interacts with staff and
other stakeholders in an open and truthful manner; Expresses
their beliefs even when the message may not
be welcome; Shares information, insights, or comments when it
would be easier to refrain from doing so
L.2 Promotes Organizational Integrity - Ensures that
organization adheres to honesty and fair dealing with all
constituencies, including employees and community
stakeholders; Promotes the development of professional
roles/values that are compatible with the improvement of health
and wellness; Serves with a focus on the greater good; Strives
to uphold trustworthiness
L.3 Maintains Social Accountability - Develops and implements
systems for tracking and sustaining commitments to staff ,
customers and the community; Acknowledges issues and
contributing factors; Publicly admits to mistakes;
Establishes approaches to handling issues and mistakes with
openness, honesty, and fairness
L.4 Promotes Community Stewardship - Develops professional
roles/values supporting the improvement of individual and
population health; Commits to addressing the broader health and
wellness needs of the total
population, including adapting new and inclusive approaches
that address diverse cultural attitudes about health; Ensures
sound organizational stewardship and accountability for dealing
with all stakeholders honestly
and equitably
Reflection

32. Points earned: Met=100 Not Met=0
Write a capital purchase proposal. The proposal can be to
purchase anything that meets the definition of a capital purchase
but it must cost at least $200,000. Your goal is to convince the
Board (instructor) to approve this purchase. Your presentation
needs to include at least the following content: 1. A description
of the item with pictures and all details you can find, include
proper sources. 2. The cost – including installation, operating
and maintenance costs, CON application fees. 3. The financial
effect – Will it make money or save money? How much? 4.
Calculations for the payback period. 5. The service effect – Will
it expand service or improve quality? Is it a patient safety
issue?
The above information needs to be included in a written report.
It will probably be two to three pages although you will not be
graded down if it takes more pages. Include the financial
information (payback period calculations) either in a Word table
or in Excel. To keep things simple, the payback period does not
need to include inflation or discount factors on the cost of
money. Simply take the full cost of the capital purchase and
divide the net revenue per year that the capital purchase
produces to come up with the payback period. Make sure you
include all the costs of the capital item (installation, training,
etc.). These costs may also include a Certificate of Need
approval so you will want to investigate that prior to final
submission.
In addition to the written report, create a PowerPoint
presentation; one you would use to present (sell) your idea to
the Board. It may include YouTube videos or other visuals. Be

33. creative and have fun with this.
The following is a list of capital items students have used in the
past; just to give you some ideas:
• X-ray Machine
• CT Scanner
• Medical Helicopter
• Surgery Robot (Da Vinci)
• Garden for people with dementia
• Surgery Lighting
To: Board of Directors
From: Great Lakes Hospital
Subject: Capital Proposal
Date:
Description:
The Great Lakes Hospital is requesting a replacement for our
CT scanner. The new CT scanner, the Aquilion One 640 scanner
made by Toshiba will be the new machine and will increase
patient volume and efficiency. The Aquilion One scanner has a
weight limit of up to 660 pounds which broadens our scope of
patients. The scanner takes 640 slice pictures that reconstructs
sections of the body. This is the only one of its kind in the
United States that can take pictures with this many slices. The
machine was approved by the FDA in September, 2012 and
lowers the total cost of care. This technology has a .5mm x 320
detector, 16cm of coverage, .35sec rotation, 3D enhancement,
and SEMAR metal artifact reduction. All of these features
allows for a whole organ image that can assist in assessment of
stroke when symptoms like chest pain present. Since the weight
limit is 660 pounds the machine has a 78cm bore width.
Additional features on the Aquilion One 640 Scanner is the
AIDR 3D integrated and Adaptive Diagnostics Clinical

34. Solution
s.
The AIDR 3D reduces the noise in raw and data space. Allowing
for the best quality image and lowest dose possible. The
technology automatically determines how much radiation will
be needed for a certain section of the body that is being
scanned. Each organ requires different radiation dosage to
obtain the highest quality image. The machine will prompt the
medical professional to confirm the patient’s age, weight, and
exam type. After the information is inputted into the scanner
then the technology will adjust to the lowest dose.
The Adaptive Diagnostics Clinical