The document discusses alcohols and carboxylic acids. It describes the key features of alcohols including their general formula, functional group, names and properties. Ethanol is described as the most important alcohol. Carboxylic acids are also discussed, with ethanoic acid as an example. Methods for producing ethanol through fermentation of carbohydrates and from ethene are summarized.
This document discusses reversible chemical reactions and chemical equilibrium. It defines key terms like activation energy, exothermic and endothermic reactions, and how factors like temperature, concentration, and catalysts affect the rate and direction of reversible reactions. Specifically, it explains that at chemical equilibrium, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal and application of Le Chatelier's principle describes how the system responds to changes to relieve stress.
Alcohols belong to a homologous series of organic compounds similar to alkanes and alkenes, with the general formula CnH2n+1OH. Methanol has one carbon atom, ethanol has two, and propanol has three. Alcohols are named by replacing the ending of the parent alkane with "ol". Alcohols are soluble in water and can undergo combustion, oxidation, and fermentation reactions. Ethanol is produced industrially by hydration of ethene or fermentation of carbohydrates by yeast. Alcohols have uses as solvents, in alcoholic drinks, and fuel.
Preparation and reaction of aldehyde and ketone, electromeric effect, aldol condensation, cannizarro reaction, perkin condensation, benzoin condensation, nucleophilic addition reaction and uses of aldehyde and ketone
Dynamic equilibrium occurs in reversible reactions where the forward and backward reactions proceed at the same rate, resulting in no net change in the amounts of reactants and products despite the reactions being ongoing. It can only exist within a closed system to prevent products from escaping. The position of dynamic equilibrium depends on factors like temperature and concentration, and may favor either reactants or products, rather than having equal amounts of both.
This document discusses the preparation of salts. It describes two methods for preparing soluble salts: 1) Adding an acid to a solid metal, base, or carbonate and 2) Reacting a dilute acid and alkali through neutralization. It also describes preparing insoluble salts through precipitation reactions. The key steps for each method are outlined, including dissolving reactants, filtering, evaporating solutions, and drying crystals. Examples are provided for preparing copper (II) sulfate using method 1 and lead (II) sulfate using a precipitation reaction between lead (II) nitrate and potassium sulfate solutions.
5.4 exothermic and endothermic reactionsMartin Brown
This document discusses exothermic and endothermic reactions. Exothermic reactions release heat, while endothermic reactions absorb heat. Combustion reactions of hydrocarbons like methane and propane are exothermic, producing carbon dioxide, water vapor, and large amounts of heat. The heat of reaction, ΔH, indicates whether a reaction is exothermic (negative ΔH) or endothermic (positive ΔH). Bond energies represent the energy required to break bonds, while heat of combustion measures the heat released from complete combustion. A bomb calorimeter is used to accurately measure heats of combustion by igniting samples in excess oxygen. Hess's law states that the heat change of a reaction depends only on
This document provides an introduction to acids, bases, and salts for GCSE chemistry students. It discusses key topics like acidity and alkalinity, indicators, the pH scale, types of acids including strong and weak acids, and various methods for making salts through reactions between acids and metals, metal oxides, metal carbonates, metal hydroxides, and ammonia. The document is intended to help students understand and revise these core chemistry concepts in preparation for their exams.
This document discusses reversible chemical reactions and chemical equilibrium. It defines key terms like activation energy, exothermic and endothermic reactions, and how factors like temperature, concentration, and catalysts affect the rate and direction of reversible reactions. Specifically, it explains that at chemical equilibrium, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal and application of Le Chatelier's principle describes how the system responds to changes to relieve stress.
Alcohols belong to a homologous series of organic compounds similar to alkanes and alkenes, with the general formula CnH2n+1OH. Methanol has one carbon atom, ethanol has two, and propanol has three. Alcohols are named by replacing the ending of the parent alkane with "ol". Alcohols are soluble in water and can undergo combustion, oxidation, and fermentation reactions. Ethanol is produced industrially by hydration of ethene or fermentation of carbohydrates by yeast. Alcohols have uses as solvents, in alcoholic drinks, and fuel.
Preparation and reaction of aldehyde and ketone, electromeric effect, aldol condensation, cannizarro reaction, perkin condensation, benzoin condensation, nucleophilic addition reaction and uses of aldehyde and ketone
Dynamic equilibrium occurs in reversible reactions where the forward and backward reactions proceed at the same rate, resulting in no net change in the amounts of reactants and products despite the reactions being ongoing. It can only exist within a closed system to prevent products from escaping. The position of dynamic equilibrium depends on factors like temperature and concentration, and may favor either reactants or products, rather than having equal amounts of both.
This document discusses the preparation of salts. It describes two methods for preparing soluble salts: 1) Adding an acid to a solid metal, base, or carbonate and 2) Reacting a dilute acid and alkali through neutralization. It also describes preparing insoluble salts through precipitation reactions. The key steps for each method are outlined, including dissolving reactants, filtering, evaporating solutions, and drying crystals. Examples are provided for preparing copper (II) sulfate using method 1 and lead (II) sulfate using a precipitation reaction between lead (II) nitrate and potassium sulfate solutions.
5.4 exothermic and endothermic reactionsMartin Brown
This document discusses exothermic and endothermic reactions. Exothermic reactions release heat, while endothermic reactions absorb heat. Combustion reactions of hydrocarbons like methane and propane are exothermic, producing carbon dioxide, water vapor, and large amounts of heat. The heat of reaction, ΔH, indicates whether a reaction is exothermic (negative ΔH) or endothermic (positive ΔH). Bond energies represent the energy required to break bonds, while heat of combustion measures the heat released from complete combustion. A bomb calorimeter is used to accurately measure heats of combustion by igniting samples in excess oxygen. Hess's law states that the heat change of a reaction depends only on
This document provides an introduction to acids, bases, and salts for GCSE chemistry students. It discusses key topics like acidity and alkalinity, indicators, the pH scale, types of acids including strong and weak acids, and various methods for making salts through reactions between acids and metals, metal oxides, metal carbonates, metal hydroxides, and ammonia. The document is intended to help students understand and revise these core chemistry concepts in preparation for their exams.
Organic chemistry revision notes cover the formation of fossil fuels like oil from dead marine organisms under heat and pressure. Crude oil is separated into fractions like gasoline and kerosene through fractional distillation, and combustion produces pollution like carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides. The energy released during combustion can be measured using a calorimeter. Homologous series are families of compounds with the same functional group and general formula that differ by CH2. Main series include alkanes, alkenes, and alcohols, which are named based on their carbon chain and functional group.
The document discusses identification of ions and gases in chemistry. It describes various tests that can be used to identify metal cations, anions, and gases. Tests to identify metal cations include observing the color of precipitates formed with sodium hydroxide and ammonium solutions, as well as observing the color of flames in flame tests. Tests to identify anions include observing color changes with solutions. Tests to identify gases include observing physical and chemical properties. The document also provides examples of past exam questions related to identifying ions.
This document describes the properties of alkenes. Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain carbon-carbon double bonds. They undergo addition reactions at the double bond, such as hydrogenation to form alkanes. Common reactions include addition of hydrogen, halogens, water, and oxidation. Alkenes polymerize to form polymers by joining many monomer units. Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due to the presence of the double bond.
The document provides information about electrolysis, including:
1) Electrolysis is the chemical effect of electricity on ionic compounds, causing them to break up into simpler substances like elements.
2) During electrolysis, ions move to electrodes of opposite charge where chemical reactions occur - non-metals form at the anode and metals or hydrogen form at the cathode.
3) Examples of electrolysis include molten lead(II) bromide producing lead at the cathode and bromine at the anode, and aqueous copper(II) chloride producing copper at the cathode and chlorine at the anode.
Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms when substances undergo chemical changes. There are several signs that indicate a chemical reaction has occurred, such as a change in color, gas evolution, temperature change, state change, or precipitate formation. Chemical reactions can be described by word equations or chemical equations, with the latter providing a more concise representation where the reactants are on the left and products on the right, separated by an arrow. Chemical equations must satisfy the law of conservation of mass and show correct formulas and phases for substances. Balanced chemical equations ensure equal numbers of each type of atom are present on both sides. Common types of chemical reactions include combination, decomposition, displacement, and redox reactions.
Electrolysis is an electrochemical process where an electric current is passed through an ionic substance like molten salt or electrolyte solution, causing a non-spontaneous chemical reaction to occur. During electrolysis, ions migrate to the electrodes where they undergo oxidation or reduction reactions. Cations migrate to the cathode and gain electrons through reduction. Anions migrate to the anode and lose electrons through oxidation. The document defines key terms related to electrolysis like electrodes, electrolyte, ions, and provides examples of the half-reactions and overall reaction that occur during the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons that contain only carbon-carbon single bonds. They have the general formula CnH2n+2 and include common fuels like methane, ethane, propane and butane. Alkanes are nonpolar and insoluble in water, making them float on surfaces. While generally nonreactive, alkanes readily undergo combustion reactions, releasing energy. Incomplete combustion produces hazardous byproducts like carbon monoxide. Alkanes also react through halogenation reactions where halogens replace hydrogen atoms.
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have the general formula CnH2n. Some key properties of alkenes include being less dense than alkanes and having boiling points that increase with molecular weight. Alkenes undergo addition reactions, such as adding halogens, hydrogen halides, hydrogen, and water across the double bond. The addition occurs according to Markovnikov's rule, where the negative part of the additive joins to the carbon with fewer hydrogen atoms. Alkenes can be prepared from alkynes, alkyl halides, and alcohols through reactions like reduction, dehydrohalogenation, and dehydration.
Alkynes can be prepared through several methods:
1. From calcium carbide by reacting calcium carbide with water to produce acetylene.
2. From vicinal dihalides by treating them with alcoholic potassium hydroxide to undergo dehydrohalogenation and form alkyne.
3. Alkynes readily react with hydrogen in the presence of catalysts like nickel, platinum or palladium through a reaction called hydrogenation.
This is a summary of the topic "Carboxylic Acids" in the GCE O levels subject: Chemistry. Students taking pure chemistry will find this useful. These slides are prepared according to the learning outcomes required by the examinations board.
This document discusses various types of alcohols including their structures, properties, preparation methods and uses. It defines alcohols as organic compounds containing a hydroxyl functional group bonded to a carbon. Alcohols are classified based on the number of OH groups as monohydric, dihydric or trihydric. They are also classified based on the number of alkyl groups attached to the carbon as primary, secondary or tertiary alcohols. Common methods of preparing alcohols discussed are the hydrolysis of alkyl halides, reduction of carbonyl compounds, and hydration of alkenes. Specific alcohols described include ethanol, methanol, chlorobutanol, cetostearyl
Alkenes are hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have lower melting and boiling points than alkanes due to weaker intermolecular forces. The number of carbons determines an alkene's name and formula. Alkenes undergo addition reactions, combustion reactions, polymerization reactions, and can be used to test for double bonds. They differ from alkanes in bonding, reactivity and ability to cause soot during combustion. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas, resulting in different physical but same chemical properties.
IB Chemistry on Nucleophilic Substitution, SN1, SN2 and protic solventLawrence kok
This document provides a tutorial on organic chemistry reactions, specifically nucleophilic substitution reactions (SN1 and SN2) and the reactivity of functional groups. It discusses the properties and reactions of alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters. Key reactions covered include combustion, halogenation, oxidation, esterification, and polymerization. Reaction mechanisms and conditions are explained for common transformations of functional groups like alcohol oxidation and ester synthesis.
Carboxylic acids belong to a homologous series of organic compounds containing the carboxyl functional group (-COOH). They are weak acids that can react with bases to form salts, with reactive metals to form salts and hydrogen gas, and with carbonates to form salts, carbon dioxide and water. Ethanoic acid is an important carboxylic acid used to make vinegar. Esters are formed from a reaction between carboxylic acids and alcohols, and have a general formula of RCOOR'. Esters have sweet smells and flavors and are used in perfumes, foods, and solvents.
- Acid anhydrides contain two molecules of a carboxylic acid joined together with the loss of a water molecule. Their general structure is RCO-O-COR.
- They can be prepared by reacting acid chlorides with carboxylic acids or carboxylate salts, or by heating carboxylic acids with zinc oxide or certain dicarboxylic acids.
- Acid anhydrides react through hydrolysis, alcoholysis, ammonolysis, and Friedel-Crafts acylation. Hydrolysis regenerates the original carboxylic acids, while alcoholysis forms esters and acids. Ammonolysis produces amides, and Friedel-Crafts acylation yields ket
Different types of chemical reactions(ppt)utkarshs92
Utkarsh Singh presented on the different types of chemical reactions. There are several types including combination reactions, decomposition reactions, displacement reactions, and double displacement reactions. Combination reactions involve elements or compounds combining to form a new substance. Decomposition reactions involve breaking a substance down into simpler substances. Displacement reactions involve one element replacing another in a compound. Double displacement reactions involve ion exchange between two ionic compounds. Oxidation-reduction reactions involve the transfer of electrons between reactants. Exothermic reactions release heat while endothermic reactions absorb heat from their surroundings.
Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one reactant to another, resulting in oxidation and reduction. Oxidation is the loss of electrons and reduction is the gain of electrons. Common redox reactions include photosynthesis, respiration, combustion, and production and use of fertilizers.
THIS PRESENTATION IS FOR THE STUDENTS STUDYING IN SENIOR CLASSES .IT WILL HELP THE CHILD TO RECALL THE CONTENT IN SHORT TIME IT WILL HELP TO BUILD THE STRONG AND CLEAR CONCEPT KNOWLEDGE.
A structural isomer is a chemical formula that can take on different shapes. Saturated hydrocarbons have single bonds and cannot bond further, while unsaturated hydrocarbons have double or triple bonds and can bond with other compounds. Carboxylic acids have the basic structure of R-COOH and are used in esterification reactions with alcohols. Esterification is the reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid to form an ester. Combustion reactions break down hydrocarbons and oxygen to produce water and carbon dioxide. Polymers are formed through polymerization reactions that link monomers together into chains.
The document outlines questions and topics for an exam on basic nutrition and food chemistry. It includes 8 questions, with each question covering various subtopics and aspects of key nutritional concepts. Question 1 covers amino acids, their definition, importance, classification and the structures of aspartic acid and alanine. Question 2 defines pregnancy and why nutritional requirements increase during pregnancy. Question 3 defines food, nutrition and nutrients; and covers their classification and functions. Question 4 defines a balanced diet and discusses ratios of macronutrients and factors in planning a balanced diet.
Organic chemistry revision notes cover the formation of fossil fuels like oil from dead marine organisms under heat and pressure. Crude oil is separated into fractions like gasoline and kerosene through fractional distillation, and combustion produces pollution like carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides. The energy released during combustion can be measured using a calorimeter. Homologous series are families of compounds with the same functional group and general formula that differ by CH2. Main series include alkanes, alkenes, and alcohols, which are named based on their carbon chain and functional group.
The document discusses identification of ions and gases in chemistry. It describes various tests that can be used to identify metal cations, anions, and gases. Tests to identify metal cations include observing the color of precipitates formed with sodium hydroxide and ammonium solutions, as well as observing the color of flames in flame tests. Tests to identify anions include observing color changes with solutions. Tests to identify gases include observing physical and chemical properties. The document also provides examples of past exam questions related to identifying ions.
This document describes the properties of alkenes. Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain carbon-carbon double bonds. They undergo addition reactions at the double bond, such as hydrogenation to form alkanes. Common reactions include addition of hydrogen, halogens, water, and oxidation. Alkenes polymerize to form polymers by joining many monomer units. Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due to the presence of the double bond.
The document provides information about electrolysis, including:
1) Electrolysis is the chemical effect of electricity on ionic compounds, causing them to break up into simpler substances like elements.
2) During electrolysis, ions move to electrodes of opposite charge where chemical reactions occur - non-metals form at the anode and metals or hydrogen form at the cathode.
3) Examples of electrolysis include molten lead(II) bromide producing lead at the cathode and bromine at the anode, and aqueous copper(II) chloride producing copper at the cathode and chlorine at the anode.
Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms when substances undergo chemical changes. There are several signs that indicate a chemical reaction has occurred, such as a change in color, gas evolution, temperature change, state change, or precipitate formation. Chemical reactions can be described by word equations or chemical equations, with the latter providing a more concise representation where the reactants are on the left and products on the right, separated by an arrow. Chemical equations must satisfy the law of conservation of mass and show correct formulas and phases for substances. Balanced chemical equations ensure equal numbers of each type of atom are present on both sides. Common types of chemical reactions include combination, decomposition, displacement, and redox reactions.
Electrolysis is an electrochemical process where an electric current is passed through an ionic substance like molten salt or electrolyte solution, causing a non-spontaneous chemical reaction to occur. During electrolysis, ions migrate to the electrodes where they undergo oxidation or reduction reactions. Cations migrate to the cathode and gain electrons through reduction. Anions migrate to the anode and lose electrons through oxidation. The document defines key terms related to electrolysis like electrodes, electrolyte, ions, and provides examples of the half-reactions and overall reaction that occur during the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons that contain only carbon-carbon single bonds. They have the general formula CnH2n+2 and include common fuels like methane, ethane, propane and butane. Alkanes are nonpolar and insoluble in water, making them float on surfaces. While generally nonreactive, alkanes readily undergo combustion reactions, releasing energy. Incomplete combustion produces hazardous byproducts like carbon monoxide. Alkanes also react through halogenation reactions where halogens replace hydrogen atoms.
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have the general formula CnH2n. Some key properties of alkenes include being less dense than alkanes and having boiling points that increase with molecular weight. Alkenes undergo addition reactions, such as adding halogens, hydrogen halides, hydrogen, and water across the double bond. The addition occurs according to Markovnikov's rule, where the negative part of the additive joins to the carbon with fewer hydrogen atoms. Alkenes can be prepared from alkynes, alkyl halides, and alcohols through reactions like reduction, dehydrohalogenation, and dehydration.
Alkynes can be prepared through several methods:
1. From calcium carbide by reacting calcium carbide with water to produce acetylene.
2. From vicinal dihalides by treating them with alcoholic potassium hydroxide to undergo dehydrohalogenation and form alkyne.
3. Alkynes readily react with hydrogen in the presence of catalysts like nickel, platinum or palladium through a reaction called hydrogenation.
This is a summary of the topic "Carboxylic Acids" in the GCE O levels subject: Chemistry. Students taking pure chemistry will find this useful. These slides are prepared according to the learning outcomes required by the examinations board.
This document discusses various types of alcohols including their structures, properties, preparation methods and uses. It defines alcohols as organic compounds containing a hydroxyl functional group bonded to a carbon. Alcohols are classified based on the number of OH groups as monohydric, dihydric or trihydric. They are also classified based on the number of alkyl groups attached to the carbon as primary, secondary or tertiary alcohols. Common methods of preparing alcohols discussed are the hydrolysis of alkyl halides, reduction of carbonyl compounds, and hydration of alkenes. Specific alcohols described include ethanol, methanol, chlorobutanol, cetostearyl
Alkenes are hydrocarbons containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They have lower melting and boiling points than alkanes due to weaker intermolecular forces. The number of carbons determines an alkene's name and formula. Alkenes undergo addition reactions, combustion reactions, polymerization reactions, and can be used to test for double bonds. They differ from alkanes in bonding, reactivity and ability to cause soot during combustion. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas, resulting in different physical but same chemical properties.
IB Chemistry on Nucleophilic Substitution, SN1, SN2 and protic solventLawrence kok
This document provides a tutorial on organic chemistry reactions, specifically nucleophilic substitution reactions (SN1 and SN2) and the reactivity of functional groups. It discusses the properties and reactions of alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters. Key reactions covered include combustion, halogenation, oxidation, esterification, and polymerization. Reaction mechanisms and conditions are explained for common transformations of functional groups like alcohol oxidation and ester synthesis.
Carboxylic acids belong to a homologous series of organic compounds containing the carboxyl functional group (-COOH). They are weak acids that can react with bases to form salts, with reactive metals to form salts and hydrogen gas, and with carbonates to form salts, carbon dioxide and water. Ethanoic acid is an important carboxylic acid used to make vinegar. Esters are formed from a reaction between carboxylic acids and alcohols, and have a general formula of RCOOR'. Esters have sweet smells and flavors and are used in perfumes, foods, and solvents.
- Acid anhydrides contain two molecules of a carboxylic acid joined together with the loss of a water molecule. Their general structure is RCO-O-COR.
- They can be prepared by reacting acid chlorides with carboxylic acids or carboxylate salts, or by heating carboxylic acids with zinc oxide or certain dicarboxylic acids.
- Acid anhydrides react through hydrolysis, alcoholysis, ammonolysis, and Friedel-Crafts acylation. Hydrolysis regenerates the original carboxylic acids, while alcoholysis forms esters and acids. Ammonolysis produces amides, and Friedel-Crafts acylation yields ket
Different types of chemical reactions(ppt)utkarshs92
Utkarsh Singh presented on the different types of chemical reactions. There are several types including combination reactions, decomposition reactions, displacement reactions, and double displacement reactions. Combination reactions involve elements or compounds combining to form a new substance. Decomposition reactions involve breaking a substance down into simpler substances. Displacement reactions involve one element replacing another in a compound. Double displacement reactions involve ion exchange between two ionic compounds. Oxidation-reduction reactions involve the transfer of electrons between reactants. Exothermic reactions release heat while endothermic reactions absorb heat from their surroundings.
Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one reactant to another, resulting in oxidation and reduction. Oxidation is the loss of electrons and reduction is the gain of electrons. Common redox reactions include photosynthesis, respiration, combustion, and production and use of fertilizers.
THIS PRESENTATION IS FOR THE STUDENTS STUDYING IN SENIOR CLASSES .IT WILL HELP THE CHILD TO RECALL THE CONTENT IN SHORT TIME IT WILL HELP TO BUILD THE STRONG AND CLEAR CONCEPT KNOWLEDGE.
A structural isomer is a chemical formula that can take on different shapes. Saturated hydrocarbons have single bonds and cannot bond further, while unsaturated hydrocarbons have double or triple bonds and can bond with other compounds. Carboxylic acids have the basic structure of R-COOH and are used in esterification reactions with alcohols. Esterification is the reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid to form an ester. Combustion reactions break down hydrocarbons and oxygen to produce water and carbon dioxide. Polymers are formed through polymerization reactions that link monomers together into chains.
The document outlines questions and topics for an exam on basic nutrition and food chemistry. It includes 8 questions, with each question covering various subtopics and aspects of key nutritional concepts. Question 1 covers amino acids, their definition, importance, classification and the structures of aspartic acid and alanine. Question 2 defines pregnancy and why nutritional requirements increase during pregnancy. Question 3 defines food, nutrition and nutrients; and covers their classification and functions. Question 4 defines a balanced diet and discusses ratios of macronutrients and factors in planning a balanced diet.
This document provides information about the IGNITE program for the 2013-2014 school year including the Civics and Law and Health Sciences tracks. It lists the various activities, experiences, field trips and classes that students in each track would participate in over the course of the year. It also provides details on cost, eligibility requirements, class sizes and how to apply for the program.
LITERATURE REVIEW: ROLES OF FLAVONOIDS IN HUMAN HEALTHKayode Kolawole
This paper is based on the importance of phytochemicals in our health. How this nutrients from plants help us combat series of degenerative diseases and mechanism of actions.
Esters are produced from a reaction between an organic acid and an alcohol, with water as a byproduct. Natural esters include fats, oils, and aromas in fruits. Man-made esters are now commonly produced industrially for uses such as perfumes and flavors. Esters have properties including volatility, solubility in organic solvents but not water, and high melting points for large esters like fats. They are used in applications such as solvents, cosmetics, flavors, and fragrances due to these properties. Esters can be prepared through the reaction of a carboxylic acid and alcohol with an acid catalyst and heat.
Fuctional group determination of drugs in biological activity.vishnu chinnamsetti
The document discusses the role of functional groups in determining biological activity. It defines functional groups as atoms within drug molecules that confer specific chemical and physical properties. The key points are:
1) Functional groups determine properties like ionization, solubility, reactivity, stability, and metabolism. They impact drug shelf life, action duration, and susceptibility to metabolism.
2) There are several types of functional groups including acidic, basic, hydrophilic, intermediate polarity, and lipophilic groups. These groups impact properties like water solubility, lipid solubility, and ability to cross cell membranes.
3) The presence of particular functional groups is important for a drug's intended biological activity and receptor interactions. Understanding functional
Esters have the general formula RCOOR'. They are formed by the reaction of carboxylic acids with alcohols, which is called esterification. Esters can also be prepared from acyl chlorides or acid anhydrides. Esters undergo various reactions including hydrolysis, aminolysis, reactions with Grignard reagents, and transesterification. Hydrolysis converts esters back into carboxylic acids and alcohols. Transesterification involves exchanging one alkoxy group in an ester for another.
Experiment 15. Reactions of carboxylic acidsAlex Rabanes
This document describes an experiment involving reactions of carboxylic acids. It includes drawing structural formulas of common carboxylic acids, writing equations for reactions like ionization and with NaOH and NaHCO3. Results show trichloroacetic acid is most acidic due to chlorine electron withdrawal. Solubility depends on structure. Carboxylic acids are resistant to oxidation but some can oxidize. Evidence of esterification is change in odor and insolubility in water.
Esters are polar molecules that can participate in hydrogen bonding and dipole-dipole interactions. They are more polar than ethers but less polar than alcohols. Esters have lower melting and boiling points than the corresponding acids and amides. They undergo hydrolysis under basic conditions and are relatively resistant to reduction compared to ketones and aldehydes. Esters are commonly used as solvents, plasticizers, and food flavorings.
Ester is one of the functional groups in organic chemistry. It is formed by combining alcohols and carboxylic acids in a process called esterification.
1st year Organic Chem in Nursing-my group's powerpoint presentation. Enjoy! Not responsible for any error in information..it's been 3 years and I'm not sure if I corrected the information after we presented and were critiqued
This document provides an overview of food packaging. It discusses the definition and functions of food packaging, including protection, communication, convenience, containment, traceability, and tamper indication. It also covers mass transfer and interaction between foods and packaging materials through diffusion, absorption and permeation. The major packaging materials discussed are glass, metals, paper/paperboard and plastics. It provides details on specific types of paper, paperboard, glass and plastics used for food packaging.
Here are the answers to the quick check questions:
1. Raw materials required for ethanol production by fermentation are carbohydrates such as starch or sugar, water, yeast and a source of enzymes.
2. The chemical equations for the fermentation of sugar are:
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide
Alcohols can undergo several chemical reactions:
1) They act as both acids and bases due to the hydroxyl group and can form alkoxides or accept protons.
2) The hydroxyl group can be replaced by halides using reagents like phosphorus pentachloride or thionyl chloride.
3) Alcohols can undergo esterification when reacted with carboxylic acids to form esters.
This chapter outline summarizes key topics in Chapter 22 on alcohols, ethers, phenols, and thiols. It introduces functional groups and covers the classification, naming, physical properties and chemical reactions of alcohols. Specific reactions discussed include protonation, deprotonation, oxidation, dehydration, esterification, and hydrolysis. Secondary alcohols undergo oxidation to form ketones while primary alcohols are oxidized to aldehydes and then carboxylic acids. Dehydration of alcohols forms alkenes and ethers. Esterification produces esters from alcohols and carboxylic acids.
The document discusses alcohols, including their structure, properties, nomenclature, methods of preparation, and reactions. Some key points:
1. Alcohols contain a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group attached to a saturated carbon atom. They can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on if the -OH group is attached to a primary, secondary, or tertiary carbon.
2. Common physical properties of alcohols include being colorless liquids with characteristic smells, and higher boiling points than alkanes due to hydrogen bonding between -OH groups.
3. Alcohols can be prepared through hydrolysis of alkyl halides, alkenes,
This document summarizes the structures, properties, and preparation of alcohols. It defines alcohols as organic compounds containing a hydroxyl group attached to an alkyl group, giving them both non-polar and polar regions. Alcohols can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the number of carbons bound to the hydroxyl carbon. Higher molecular weight alcohols have higher boiling points due to hydrogen bonding. Alcohols with shorter alkyl chains up to four carbons are water soluble, while longer chains are not. Common methods for preparing alcohols include hydration of alkenes, reduction of carboxylic acids and esters, and fermentation of sugars
This document discusses two methods for preparing alcohols: hydration of alkenes and fermentation. Hydration of alkenes involves adding water to alkenes to produce alcohols, as shown in the equations for ethene and propene. Fermentation uses yeast and sugar to produce ethanol only, through a process where the yeast enzyme zymase breaks down glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The document also covers physical and chemical properties of alcohols such as boiling points, solubility, combustion, dehydration, oxidation, and reaction with sodium.
This document discusses the classification, nomenclature, physical properties, and chemical reactions of alcohols. It defines alcohols as organic compounds containing a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group attached to an alkyl group. Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on whether the -OH group is bonded to a primary, secondary, or tertiary carbon. Their higher boiling points compared to alkanes is due to hydrogen bonding between molecules. Common reactions include dehydration to alkenes, oxidation, and substitution to form esters, ethers, halides, and tosylates.
The document discusses the classification, nomenclature, preparation, properties and reactions of alcohols. Alcohols can be classified based on the number of hydroxyl groups and the carbon they are attached to. The IUPAC system names alcohols based on the parent chain and hydroxyl position. Alcohols can be prepared from alkyl halides, alkenes, carbonyl compounds and by reduction. They have higher boiling points than other organic compounds due to hydrogen bonding. Primary alcohols undergo SN2 reactions while tertiary undergo SN1. Oxidation of primary alcohols yields aldehydes and secondary yields ketones.
This document provides an introduction to the chemistry of alcohols. It begins with classifying alcohols as either aliphatic or aromatic based on whether the OH group is attached to the carbon chain or ring. Primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols are distinguished based on the number of carbon groups attached to the carbon with the OH group. Key chemical properties discussed include hydrogen bonding leading to higher boiling points than alkanes, elimination reactions producing alkenes, and oxidation reactions that convert primary alcohols to aldehydes and aldehydes to carboxylic acids or convert secondary alcohols to ketones. Tertiary alcohols are resistant to oxidation due to lacking
This document provides an introduction to alcohols, phenols, thiols, and ethers. It defines each compound group and provides examples. Alcohols contain a hydroxyl group attached to an alkyl group. Phenols have a hydroxyl group attached to an aryl group. Ethers have two alkyl or aryl groups attached to an oxygen atom. Thiols are similar to alcohols but with a sulfur atom replacing oxygen. The document discusses hydrogen bonding in alcohols, solubility, naming conventions, and reactions including oxidation, dehydration, and hydration. It also introduces common phenols, properties and uses of ethers, and applications of thiols.
- Alcohols contain an -OH functional group which makes them polar and soluble in water. They can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of carbon atoms bonded to the carbon attached to the OH group.
- Primary alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydes then carboxylic acids using oxidizing agents like acidified dichromate or manganate. Secondary alcohols oxidize to ketones. Tertiary alcohols do not oxidize.
- Burning alcohols releases energy with the amount increasing with the alcohol chain length due to more carbon dioxide produced. In limited oxygen, carbon monoxide is formed instead of carbon
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry topics including alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, carboxylic acids, and macromolecules. It defines key terms such as homologous series and discusses the physical properties and reactions of these organic compounds. For example, it explains that alkanes form a homologous series with a general formula of CnH2n+2 and that their melting and boiling points increase with chain length. It also summarizes how alcohols can undergo combustion, oxidation to form carboxylic acids, and esterification reactions.
The document outlines a chemistry route map for studying various topics over 24 lessons, including alkanes, alcohols, carboxylic acids, esters, fats and oils, energy changes, chromatography, titrations, reaction rates, equilibrium, the chemical industry, and green chemistry. It provides lesson objectives, activities, and questions for lessons on alkanes, alcohols, and carboxylic acids, covering topics like their structures, properties, reactions, uses, and how they are produced.
This document provides an introduction to alcohols. It begins by defining alcohols and phenols. It then discusses the classification of alcohols as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the carbon atom bonded to the hydroxyl group. The document outlines some common nomenclature and naming conventions for alcohols and phenols. It also discusses some typical physical properties of alcohols like boiling point, solubility, and acidity due to hydrogen bonding. Finally, it briefly introduces some common preparation methods for alcohols like Grignard synthesis and hydrolysis of alkyl halides.
L 10 alcohols-structure_nomenclature_classification_etc_pch217_2013_2014hmfb
This document discusses alcohols, including their structure, nomenclature, classification, physical properties, acidity and basicity, and methods of preparation. Key points covered include that alcohols contain an -OH functional group, can be classified as primary, secondary or tertiary based on carbon atom bonding, associate through hydrogen bonding affecting physical properties, and can be prepared through fermentation, hydration of alkenes, nucleophilic substitution, and reduction of carbonyl compounds.
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 10 of Organic Chemistry 7th Edition by L.G. Wade Jr. regarding the structure, properties, nomenclature and synthesis of alcohols. It discusses the classification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols. Methods of synthesis covered include hydration of alkenes, reactions of organometallic reagents like Grignard reagents and organolithium reagents with carbonyl compounds, reduction of carbonyls using sodium borohydride or lithium aluminum hydride, and catalytic hydrogenation. It also briefly discusses thiols and their synthesis and oxidation.
10 - Structure and Synthesis of Alcohols - Wade 7thNattawut Huayyai
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 10 of Organic Chemistry regarding alcohols. It discusses the structure of alcohols and water, classification of primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols. It also covers IUPAC nomenclature for naming alcohols, and common names. Physical properties like boiling points and solubility in water are described. Methods for synthesizing alcohols are summarized, including hydration of alkenes, use of organometallic reagents like Grignard reagents and organolithium reagents, and reduction of carbonyl groups.
This document provides information about alcohols including their nomenclature, classification, properties, preparation methods, and important examples. Alcohols are defined as compounds with a hydroxyl group attached to a saturated carbon. They are named using IUPAC nomenclature by identifying the carbon chain and hydroxyl group position. Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the carbons bonded to the hydroxyl carbon. Their properties include higher boiling points than alkanes and solubility in water. Common preparation methods include hydration of alkenes, addition to carbonyl groups, and reduction of carboxylic acids. Important alcohols include methanol, ethanol, glycerol
- Alcohols contain a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group bonded to a carbon atom. They are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of carbon substituents on the hydroxyl-bearing carbon.
- Common alcohols include methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, ethylene glycol, and glycerol. Alcohols are polar due to the electronegative oxygen and have characteristic reactions such as acid-catalyzed dehydration to alkenes and oxidation to aldehydes, ketones, or carboxylic acids depending on conditions.
- Tertiary alcohols are resistant to oxidation since the hydroxyl-
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
This lesson plan is for a 7th grade English class and focuses on teaching students how to participate in a panel discussion. The objectives are for students to discuss issues through a panel discussion process, perform a panel discussion, and actively participate in a group activity. Students will learn about panel discussions, including the roles of moderator and experts. They will then participate in a mock panel discussion where some students role play different stakeholders discussing the issue of poor garbage collection causing health problems in the community. Afterwards, students will evaluate each other's participation using a rating sheet and are assigned an essay explaining the importance of learning panel discussion skills.
This document discusses point of view in narratives. It defines three points of view: first person, second person, and third person. First person narration uses pronouns like "I" and "me" and the narrator is a character in the story. Second person is rarely used and directly addresses the reader as "you." Third person uses pronouns like "he" and "she" and there are three types: omniscient knows all characters' thoughts, limited is confined to one character, and objective can only convey external actions and events. Examples are provided to illustrate each point of view.
Apresentar dados na forma de distribuição de frequênciasdean dundas
Este documento explica como organizar dados quantitativos coletados em classes de frequência para facilitar a análise. Primeiro determina-se o número de classes e a largura de cada uma. Em seguida, definem-se os limites inferiores e superiores de cada classe. Por fim, conta-se a frequência de dados em cada classe para gerar a distribuição de frequência.
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Determinar frequências absoluta, relativa e relativa percentualdean dundas
Este documento explica como calcular diferentes tipos de frequências para dados estatísticos, incluindo frequências absolutas, relativas e acumuladas. Apresenta um exemplo de uma tabela de frequências para notas de 40 alunos, mostrando como calcular cada tipo de frequência para organizar e analisar os dados de maneira estatística.
O documento descreve as negociações entre a FRELIMO e o governo português em 1974 que levaram à independência de Moçambique. Discute também os objetivos da educação revolucionária moçambicana de criar um "Homem Novo" e desenvolver uma nova mentalidade e sociedade após a independência.
O documento descreve a formação e início da luta armada da FRELIMO em Moçambique contra o regime colonial português entre 1962-1968. A FRELIMO foi fundada em 1962 através da união de três organizações nacionalistas e declarou a insurreição geral armada contra Portugal em 1964, iniciando operações militares em quatro frentes. Após progressos iniciais, a luta se expandiu para mais províncias e zonas foram libertadas, culminando no II Congresso da FRELIMO em 1968.
A structure is anything that supports a load. There are three main types of structures: mass structures, which rely on their own weight to resist loads; frame structures, made of connected parts like members; and shell structures, made from thin sheet material molded into shapes. Structures must withstand various forces, both internal forces between parts and external forces from outside. Forces can be tensile (pulling), compressive (pushing), torsional (twisting), or cause bending or shearing. The way a material responds to forces depends on its mechanical properties like strength, stiffness, and whether it behaves elastically or plastically.
Notesmaster Support Network Introductiondean dundas
The Notesmaster Support Network is a collaborative initiative between the Caribbean Examinations Council, Ministries of Education, and regional organizations to build digital learning resources for schools and universities in the Caribbean. Teachers can register on the CXC-Notesmaster e-learning platform to access existing resources, join virtual subject communities, and create their own engaging notes, interactive quizzes, and online classes using the platform's features like the Notesmaster editor, Google Drive integration, and ability to organize materials by syllabus objectives. The goal is to provide digital avenues for teachers and students to communicate and access curriculum-based resources.
The picaresque novel is characterized by an episodic narrative told from the first-person perspective of a roguish anti-hero who drifts between locations and social classes, exposing the hypocrisy of society. Key elements include a naïve narrator, episodic structure, flashbacks, a sympathetic but flawed protagonist, and social commentary left to the reader. Famous examples include Don Quixote, Candide, Moll Flanders, and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
The transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil in 1808 was a significant step toward Brazilian independence. It elevated Brazil's status and made recolonization difficult. Brazilian independence was achieved in 1822 due to factors like British support, restrictions on Brazilian trade, and Dom Pedro's refusal to return to Portugal. After independence, Brazil experienced political turmoil but stabilized under Emperor Dom Pedro II. Slavery ended in 1888. The economy initially relied on exports like sugar, cotton, and coffee, with infrastructure and industry developing in the late 1800s. However, Brazil faced growing international competition in exports by 1900.
Caribbean freedom peasantry- w. k. marshalldean dundas
1) The document discusses the development of peasantry in the British West Indies since emancipation in 1838. It describes how former slaves left plantations to become small-scale farmers and landowners, establishing villages and diversifying agriculture.
2) It outlines three periods of peasant growth: establishment from 1838-1860 as they acquired land; consolidation from 1860-1900 as cash crops replaced subsistence farming; and saturation from 1900 as opportunities declined in some islands.
3) West Indian peasantry was unique in originating recently from emancipation, developing alongside plantations, and often combining farming with other work.
The document discusses different types of cams and cam mechanisms. It explains that a cam is used to convert rotational motion to linear motion using a follower. Common types of followers include knife-edged, roller, and flat-footed followers. The document also discusses different types of cam motions including uniform velocity, dwell, simple harmonic motion, and uniform acceleration/retardation. It provides examples of drawing displacement diagrams for different cam profiles and motions.
This document discusses the properties and reactions of amines. It describes how amines are moderately polar and soluble in water due to hydrogen bonding. Their boiling points are higher than non-polar compounds due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding. Amines are basic due to the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen. Common reactions of amines include salt formation, alkylation, conversion to amides, aromatic substitution, Hofmann elimination, and formation of diazonium salts. Diazonium salts can undergo replacement or coupling reactions.
This document discusses dimensions in engineering drawings. It defines dimensions as numerical values that define the size, location, and other geometric characteristics of a part. The document outlines fundamental rules of dimensioning, such as only defining the size and position of each feature once and dimensioning features in the view where their shape is best shown. It also provides guidelines for good dimensioning practice, such as leaving space between dimensions and views and placing longer dimensions outside shorter ones. Dimension styles for different geometric features like cylinders, angles, and arcs are demonstrated. The document concludes with examples of incorrect dimensioning.
The document discusses surface textures and machining symbols. It covers topics such as how surface conditions can vary depending on whether a part is machined, cast, or forged. It also addresses what type of surface is needed for a product's function, including smooth, rough or patterned surfaces. The document provides examples of machining symbols and notes on indicating machining allowances and surface roughness.
The document provides definitions and explanations for common instruction verbs used in essay questions. It lists verbs such as analyze, argue, compare, conclude, critique, define, describe, discuss, evaluate, explain, identify, and summarize. It explains the meaning and what is required by each verb in terms of the level of critical thinking and type of response expected. The document also provides tips for understanding the assignment question such as identifying key words and checking meanings to clarify what is being asked.
This document provides a summary of Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen's experiences during World War I that influenced their poetry. Both men volunteered for the war due to propaganda but became disillusioned after witnessing the horrors of trench warfare. Sassoon came from a wealthy family but found the war nothing like the glory depicted. Owen was from a humble background and also became shocked by the human losses and suffering of soldiers. Both poets were treated for shell shock and used their experiences to write realistic poems that condemned the war and portrayed the miserable conditions faced by soldiers. Sassoon's poems expressed anger at those who caused or prolonged the war without regard for soldiers. He sought to convey the true psychological experiences of being in
The Mother's Sons: Katharine Tynan's War Poetrydean dundas
This document provides an analysis of Katharine Tynan's war poetry, focusing on her portrayal of motherhood during wartime. Tynan personalizes war through her poems by depicting the experiences of mothers with sons serving in the war. Unlike many male war poets who wrote about their battlefield experiences, Tynan does not describe the atrocities of war directly. Instead, she portrays the various facets of motherhood in wartime through poems published in collections like Flower of Youth, The Holy War, and Late Songs. The analysis seeks to highlight Tynan's contribution to writing about the human impact of the war from the perspective of non-combatants waiting at home, in particular mothers worrying for their sons at the front.
The cost of acquiring information by natural selectionCarl Bergstrom
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
ESA/ACT Science Coffee: Diego Blas - Gravitational wave detection with orbita...Advanced-Concepts-Team
Presentation in the Science Coffee of the Advanced Concepts Team of the European Space Agency on the 07.06.2024.
Speaker: Diego Blas (IFAE/ICREA)
Title: Gravitational wave detection with orbital motion of Moon and artificial
Abstract:
In this talk I will describe some recent ideas to find gravitational waves from supermassive black holes or of primordial origin by studying their secular effect on the orbital motion of the Moon or satellites that are laser ranged.
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST(TAT) cognitive abilities, creativity, and critic...
C16 alcohols and carboxylic acids
1. Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
You should be able to:
• Write general and molecular formulae for members of
the alcohol homologous series.
• Write fully displayed structures and names of alcohols,
• Identify alcohols by their functional groups,
• Relate the properties of alcohols to their functional
groups,
• Describe the reactions of ethanol, and
• Describe the fermentation process by which ethanol is
produced from carbohydrates.
Alcohols
2. • All alcohols belong to a family of organic compounds
which contain the –OH group of atoms.
• This group of atoms is called the hydroxyl group. It
gives the alcohol its specific chemical properties and is
the functional group of alcohols.
• Most alcohols are colourless liquids with a strong smell.
They have low boiling and melting points.
• The members of the alcohol homologous series have the
following features:
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Alcohols
1. They have the general formula: CnH2n+1OH,
where n is an integer.
2. They have a hydroxyl functional group, –OH.
3. Their names end with ‘-ol’.
4. The formula of each member differs from the
previous one by –CH2.
3. Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Name Molecular
formula
Relative molecular
mass
Structural
formula
Methanol CH3
OH 32
Ethanol C2
H5
OH 46
Propanol C3
H7
OH 60
Butanol C4
H9
OH 74
Alcohols
4. • Ethanol is the most important alcohol in the
homologous series.
• Only ethanol can be consumed.
• Ethanol is a colourless liquid with a strong
smell.
• It has a boiling point of 78 °C and is volatile.
• It mixes readily with water.
• It is neutral to litmus.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Properties of Ethanol
5. Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Quick Check 1
1. (a) Name an alcohol with three carbon atoms.
(b) State its
(i) molecular formula.
(ii) structural formula.
2. (a) State the general formula of alcohols.
(b) State the formula of an alcohol with 20 carbon
atoms.
(c) Do you think it is a liquid, solid or gas at room
temperature and pressure?
Solution
6. Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Solutions to Quick Check 1
1. (a) Propanol
(b) (i) C3H7OH (ii)
2. (a) CnH2n+1OH
(b) C20H41OH
(c) Solid, its melting point is high because it has
very large molecular mass.
Return
7. • When a small piece of sodium is dropped into some
ethanol, it reacts steadily to give off bubbles of hydrogen
gas leaving behind a colourless solution of sodium
ethoxide, CH3CH2ONa.
• On evaporating the solution to dryness, a white sodium
ethoxide solid is obtained.
• The reaction is similar to the reaction between water and
sodium as in both reactions, the –OH group is replaced by
Na+
ion.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Chemical Reactions
1. Reaction with a reactive metal like sodium
8. • Ethanol burns in air (oxygen) to form carbon dioxide
and water. The reaction is exothermic and heat
energy is given out. Hence, ethanol can be used as
a fuel.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
2. Combustion
Ethanol + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
9. O
H H
• (i) Ethanol is oxidised by hot acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) solution into ethanoic acid:
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
3. Oxidation to Carboxylic Acids
C2H5OH + 2[O] CH3COOH + H2O
+ 2[O]
H+
/K2Cr2O7
During the reaction, the potassium dichromate(VI) solution is
reduced and the solution turns from orange to green in
colour.
H+
/K2Cr2O7
+
10. • (ii) The oxidation of ethanol can also be carried out by
using air and bacteria.
• When wine, beer or any liquid containing ethanol is left in
the open for a few days, it becomes sour.
• Airborne bacteria (called Acetobacter aceti) converts the
alcohol into vinegar, which is a solution of ethanoic acid.
• This method is used in the industry to make vinegar.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
4. Oxidation to Carboxylic Acids
Ethanol + Oxygen Ethanoic acid + Water
C2H5OH +2[O] CH3COOH + H2O
Barrels of vinegar made by oxidation
11. • Ethanol reacts with carboxylic acids in the presence of
concentrated HCl or H2SO4 to form organic compounds
called esters. For example, ethanol reacts with
ethanoic acid to form an ester called ethyl ethanoate:
• Esters are sweet smelling liquids which can be used for
making perfumes and flavouring agents.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
5. Formation of Esters
C2H5OH + CH3COOH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
ethanol ethanoic acid ethyl ethanoate
12. • Ethanol reacts with dehydrating agents such as concentrated
sulphuric acid or anhydrous aluminium oxide to form alkenes.
This is a dehydration reaction where water is lost across two
adjacent carbon atoms in the ethanol.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
6. Dehydration to Alkene
In this process, ethanol is heated with excess concentrated sulphuric
acid at 170 °C to form ethene. Alternatively, ethanol vapour can be
passed over activated alumina (Al2O3) at 450 °C.
O
H H
13. Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Quick Check 2
Solution
1. (a) State the products formed by the
combustion of alcohols in oxygen.
(b) Construct a balanced equation for the
combustion of propanol.
2. (a) What is formed when ethanol is
oxidised?
(b) State two different ways in which oxidation
of ethanol can be carried out.
14. Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Solutions to Quick Check 2
Return
1. (a) Carbon dioxide and water
(b) 2C3H7OH(l) + 9O2(g) 6CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)
2. (a) Ethanoic acid
(b) Ethanol can be oxidised
(i) by hot acidified potassium dichromate(VI)
solution (into ethanoic acid) or
(ii) by using air and bacteria.
15. • Large quantities of ethanol are made for consumption by
fermentation.
• Depending on the raw materials used, the ethanol is
produced in different kinds of alcoholic drinks such as wine,
whisky, brandy, and beer.
• Carbohydrates such as starch and sugar are mixed with
water and yeast, a unicellular fungi, and a source of
enzymes.
• The mixture is left to ferment without air for a few weeks.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Making Ethanol by Fermentation
of Carbohydrates
Fermentation is carried out in large tanks
16. sucrose glucose fructose
Step 1: C12
H22
O11
+ H2
O C6
H12
O6
+ C6
H12
O6
• The temperature of the mixture should be kept around 37 o
C
for the yeast to work best.
• The reaction only proceeds under anaerobic conditions, i.e.
absence of oxygen.
• During fermentation, the yeast feeds on the sugar and
changes it into glucose and then into ethanol.
• The ethanol obtained is distilled and made into wine or used
as pure ethanol. The carbon dioxide produced in the
fermentation is a by-product and can be made into dry ice.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
invertase
Step 2: C6
H12
O6
2C2
H5
OH + 2CO2
glucose ethanol
zymase
Making Ethanol by Fermentation
of Carbohydrates
17. • We have learned in the previous chapter that alkenes
undergo an addition reaction with steam to form alcohols.
• This is the industrial method of making ethanol which is
much cheaper than by the fermentation method.
• Ethanol is manufactured by reacting ethene with steam
using phosphoric(V) acid as a catalyst at a temperature of
about 300 o
C.
• The reaction is reversible, and the formation of the ethanol
is exothermic.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Making Ethanol from Ethene
CH2=CH2(g) +H2O(g) CH3CH2OH(g) ΔH = –45 kJ/mol
18. • The table below lists the types of alcoholic drinks and
their sources of starch used.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Alcoholic Beverages and Their Sources
Drink Source of
starch
% volume
of ethanol
Method of
preparation
Beer Barley 3 – 8 Fermentation
Wine Grapes / rice 8 – 18
Whisky Barley 30 – 60 Fermentation
and
fractional
distillation
Brandy Grapes
Vodka Rye / potatoes
19. • Ethanol is a constituent of alcoholic beverages such as
wines and whisky.
• Ethanol is used widely as a solvent for paints, varnishes,
liquid soap and other toiletries.
• Ethanol is blended with petrol and used as a fuel for
motorcars in many countries.
• Ethanol can be oxidised into ethanoic acid which is used
to manufacture plastics and drugs.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Uses of Ethanol
20. Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Quick Check 3
Solution
1. What raw materials are required for the
production of ethanol by fermentation?
2. Construct chemical equations for the
fermentation of sugar.
22. • The general formula is CnH2n+1COOH, where n is an integer.
• They have an acid functional group:
• Their names end with ‘-oic’, derived from the corresponding
alkane by replacing the letter ‘e’ in ‘-ane’ with ‘-oic’.
E.g. methane methanoic acid; ethane ethanoic acid.
• Each member of the homologous series differs from the
previous one by an extra –CH2 group.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic Acids
23. • The molecular model and structural formula of a typical
carboxylic acid, such as ethanoic acid, is as shown:
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Structure of Ethanoic acid
Structure of ethanoic acid
Name
Molecular
formula
Structural
formula
Methanoic acid HCOOH
Ethanoic acid CH3
COOH
Propanoic acid C2
H5
COOH
Butanoic acid C3
H7
COOH
24. • It is a colourless liquid with a strong sour smell.
• It mixes readily with water and is commonly called acetic
acid.
• It turns blue litmus red.
• Carboxylic acids are weak monobasic acids.
• Carboxylic acids show typical reactions of mineral acids.
They react less vigorously as they are weak acids and
dissociate only partially in water to form hydrogen ions.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Properties of Ethanoic Acid
Chemical reactions
1. Reaction with Metals
Ethanoic acid reacts with more reactive metals like sodium,
calcium and magnesium to form a salt and liberate hydrogen gas.
2Na(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq) 2CH3COONa(aq) + H2(g)
25. • Ethanoic acid reacts with the oxides and hydroxides of
metals to form salt and water. Here, the reaction is a
neutralisation reaction.
• Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates to produce salt, water
and carbon dioxide.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
2. Reaction with Metallic Oxides and Hydroxides
MgO(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq) (CH3COO)2Mg(aq) + H2O(l)
NaOH(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
3. Reaction with Carbonates
2CH3COOH(aq) + Na2CO3(s) 2CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CH3COOH(aq) + NaHCO3(s) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
26. • Ethanoic acid reacts with alcohols to form sweet smelling
compounds called esters.
• Concentrated sulphuric acid is added as a catalyst. The
process of forming esters is called esterification.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
4. Reaction with Alcohols
The formation of the esters from different carboxylic acids and
alcohols:
CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
ethanoic acid ethanol ethyl ethanoate
CH3COOH + CH3OH CH3COOCH3 + H2O
ethanoic acid methanol methyl ethanoate
C2H5COOH + C2H5OH C2H5COOC2H5 + H2O
propanoic acid ethanol ethyl propanoate
27. • Ethanoic acid is a very important chemical used in
manufacturing a wide variety of things.
• Annual production of ethanoic acid in the world is
estimated to be more than 6 million tonnes.
• There is a wide range of products made from ethanoic
acid. This includes:
– making various kinds of plastics such as acetates for making
fabric, films, adhesives and paints.
– making drugs like aspirin,
– making bleaching agents in detergents; chemicals like
herbicides and dyes, and
– vinegar, which is used in cooking, as an additive to chilli and
tomato sauces and for preserving vegetables.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Uses of Ethanoic Acid
28. Esters are organic compounds with characteristic fruity
smells.
• They are used in food flavouring and in making
perfumes.
• Esters can be prepared by reacting an alcohol with a
carboxylic acid using concentrated sulphuric acid as
the catalyst or dehydrating agent.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Esters
E.g. Ethyl ethanoate can be prepared by reacting ethanoic acid with
ethanol. In this case, the hydrogen in the –COOH group has been
replaced by an ethyl group. The formula of ethyl ethanoate is:
29. • Short-chain esters are more volatile than carboxylic acids
of the same number of carbons.
• They are not able to form hydrogen bonds with themselves
due to the absence of hydroxyl group.
• Thus the boiling points of esters are usually lower than that
of carboxylic acids of the same number of carbon atoms.
• Short-chain esters are fairly soluble in water but solubility
decreases with increasing chain length.
• Esters are soluble in water because they are able to form
hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
• The slightly positive end of a water molecule can form a
hydrogen bond with the lone pair of electrons on one of the
oxygen atoms in an ester.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Physical properties of esters
Solubility of esters in water
Boiling points
30. • The ester linkage can be broken by addition of water.
• The process is therefore known as hydrolysis.
• Hydrolysing esters using only water is very slow.
• The reaction is thus catalysed by using dilute acid like dilute
hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid.
• The ester is heated under reflux with a dilute acid and the
products are separated by fractional distillation.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Chemical properties of esters
(a) Hydrolysis of ethyl ethanoate:
(b) Hydrolysis of methyl propanoate:
31. • Alkalis can also be used. When an alkali is used, the salt
of the acid, instead of the acid itself, is formed.
• Hydrolysis of esters using an alkali is sometimes known as
saponification. (used in producing soap)
• E.g. In the hydrolysis of ethyl ethanoate using sodium
hydroxide solution, sodium ethanoate instead of ethanoic
acid is formed.
Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Alternative method
CH3COOCH2CH3(aq) + NaOH(aq) CH3COO-
Na+
(aq) + CH2CH3OH(aq)
32. Chapter 16
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Quick Check 4
Solution
1. (i) What is the general formula of a carboxylic acid?
(ii) State the formula of a carboxylic acid with 10 carbon
atoms.
2. State the name and write the structural formula of a
carboxylic acid with:
(a) 2 carbon atoms, (b) 3 carbon atoms and (c) 4 carbon
atoms.
3. (a) What organic compound is formed when ethanoic acid
reacts with ethanol?
(b) What name is given to this type of reaction and what is the
catalyst required?
(c) Construct an equation to show the reaction between
ethanoic acid and ethanol.