This document discusses various topics relating to solutions, including:
- Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances where the solute is uniformly dispersed throughout the solvent.
- For a solution to form, the intermolecular forces between solute and solvent particles must be strong enough to overcome those within the pure substances.
- The energy changes during solution formation depend on the enthalpy of separating solute and solvent particles and the new interactions between them.
- Solubility is affected by the similarity between solute and solvent intermolecular forces, temperature, and pressure.
- Colligative properties like boiling point elevation and freezing point depression depend only on the number of solute particles and can be
3-1 VECTORS AND THEIR COMPONENTS
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
3.01 Add vectors by drawing them in head-to-tail arrangements, applying the commutative and associative laws.
3.02 Subtract a vector from a second one.
3.03 Calculate the components of a vector on a given coordinate system, showing them in a drawing.
3.04 Given the components of a vector, draw the vector
and determine its magnitude and orientation.
3.05 Convert angle measures between degrees and radians.
3-2 UNIT VECTORS, ADDING VECTORS BY COMPONENTS
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
3.06 Convert a vector between magnitude-angle and unit vector notations.
3.07 Add and subtract vectors in magnitude-angle notation
and in unit-vector notation.
3.08 Identify that, for a given vector, rotating the coordinate
system about the origin can change the vector’s components but not the vector itself.
etc...
Pharmaceutical Solutions. Definition: Homogeneous liquid preparations that contain one or more chemical substances dissolved, i.e., molecularly dispersed, in a suitable solvent or mixture of mutually miscible solvents.
3-1 VECTORS AND THEIR COMPONENTS
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
3.01 Add vectors by drawing them in head-to-tail arrangements, applying the commutative and associative laws.
3.02 Subtract a vector from a second one.
3.03 Calculate the components of a vector on a given coordinate system, showing them in a drawing.
3.04 Given the components of a vector, draw the vector
and determine its magnitude and orientation.
3.05 Convert angle measures between degrees and radians.
3-2 UNIT VECTORS, ADDING VECTORS BY COMPONENTS
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
3.06 Convert a vector between magnitude-angle and unit vector notations.
3.07 Add and subtract vectors in magnitude-angle notation
and in unit-vector notation.
3.08 Identify that, for a given vector, rotating the coordinate
system about the origin can change the vector’s components but not the vector itself.
etc...
Pharmaceutical Solutions. Definition: Homogeneous liquid preparations that contain one or more chemical substances dissolved, i.e., molecularly dispersed, in a suitable solvent or mixture of mutually miscible solvents.
Solubility of Drugs (PHYSICAL PHARMACEUTICS-I)Rakesh Mishra
Solubility expressions, mechanisms of solute solvent interactions,solubility parameters, factors influencing
solubility of drugs, diffusion principles in biological systems, Raoult’s law, real solutions. Partially miscible
liquids(Phase equilibria, Phase rule, One , two and three component systems, ternary phase
diagram, Critical solution temperature and applications). Distribution law, its limitations and
applications
What is solubility in physical pharmacy?
Solubility is the concentration of a solute when the solvent has dissolved all the solute that it can at a given temperature. A useful definition of solubility is the concentration of solute in a saturated solution at equilibrium.Solubility is one of the important parameters to achieve desired concentration of drug in systemic circulation for achieving required pharmacological response [12]. Poorly water soluble drugs often require high doses in order to reach therapeutic plasma concentrations after oral administration.
The aim of this experiment is to standardize 0.1N Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) which is an unstandard substance, by using standardized Hydrochloric acid (Na2CO3).
Pharmaceutical liquid dosage forms - Classification, Types are described- Syrup, elixirs, liniments, lotions, gargles, mouthwash and throat paints. These dosage forms are describes with its preparation method.
Presentation include chapter solubility of drugs from second yr B-Pharm
Solubility, solubility expression, solute solvent interactions, solubility parameters, solvation and dissolution, factors affecting solubility, solubility of gases in liquids, liquids in liquids, fractional distillation, azeotropes, dissolution and drug release and diffusion.
Solubility of Drugs (PHYSICAL PHARMACEUTICS-I)Rakesh Mishra
Solubility expressions, mechanisms of solute solvent interactions,solubility parameters, factors influencing
solubility of drugs, diffusion principles in biological systems, Raoult’s law, real solutions. Partially miscible
liquids(Phase equilibria, Phase rule, One , two and three component systems, ternary phase
diagram, Critical solution temperature and applications). Distribution law, its limitations and
applications
What is solubility in physical pharmacy?
Solubility is the concentration of a solute when the solvent has dissolved all the solute that it can at a given temperature. A useful definition of solubility is the concentration of solute in a saturated solution at equilibrium.Solubility is one of the important parameters to achieve desired concentration of drug in systemic circulation for achieving required pharmacological response [12]. Poorly water soluble drugs often require high doses in order to reach therapeutic plasma concentrations after oral administration.
The aim of this experiment is to standardize 0.1N Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) which is an unstandard substance, by using standardized Hydrochloric acid (Na2CO3).
Pharmaceutical liquid dosage forms - Classification, Types are described- Syrup, elixirs, liniments, lotions, gargles, mouthwash and throat paints. These dosage forms are describes with its preparation method.
Presentation include chapter solubility of drugs from second yr B-Pharm
Solubility, solubility expression, solute solvent interactions, solubility parameters, solvation and dissolution, factors affecting solubility, solubility of gases in liquids, liquids in liquids, fractional distillation, azeotropes, dissolution and drug release and diffusion.
this presentation is based on magnetic effect of electric current, a which many of us have studies or will be studying in higher classes.this presentation is a better way of understanding the topic and in a visual way
Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of a substance that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specified temperature. Solubility is a characteristic property of a specific solute–solvent combination, and different substances have greatly differing solubilities.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
2. Solutions
Solutions
• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two
or more pure substances.
• In a solution, the solute is dispersed uniformly
throughout the solvent.
4. Solutions
How Does a Solution Form?
As a solution forms, the solvent pulls solute
particles apart and surrounds, or solvates,
them.
5. Solutions
How Does a Solution Form
If an ionic salt is
soluble in water, it is
because the ion-
dipole interactions
are strong enough
to overcome the
lattice energy of the
salt crystal.
6. Solutions
Energy Changes in Solution
• Simply put, three
processes affect the
energetics of the
process:
Separation of solute
particles
Separation of solvent
particles
New interactions
between solute and
solvent
7. Solutions
Energy Changes in Solution
The enthalpy
change of the
overall process
depends on ∆H for
each of these steps.
8. Solutions
Why Do Endothermic
Processes Occur?
Things do not tend to
occur spontaneously
(i.e., without outside
intervention) unless
the energy of the
system is lowered.
9. Solutions
Why Do Endothermic
Processes Occur?
Yet we know that in
some processes,
like the dissolution
of NH4NO3 in water,
heat is absorbed,
not released.
10. Solutions
Enthalpy Is Only Part of the Picture
The reason is that
increasing the disorder
or randomness (known
as entropy) of a system
tends to lower the
energy of the system.
11. Solutions
Enthalpy Is Only Part of the Picture
So even though
enthalpy may increase,
the overall energy of
the system can still
decrease if the system
becomes more
disordered.
13. Solutions
Student, Beware!
• Dissolution is a physical change—you can get back the
original solute by evaporating the solvent.
• If you can’t, the substance didn’t dissolve, it reacted.
14. Solutions
Types of Solutions
• Saturated
Solvent holds as much
solute as is possible at
that temperature.
Dissolved solute is in
dynamic equilibrium
with solid solute
particles.
15. Solutions
Types of Solutions
• Unsaturated
Less than the
maximum amount of
solute for that
temperature is
dissolved in the
solvent.
16. Solutions
Types of Solutions
• Supersaturated
Solvent holds more solute than is normally
possible at that temperature.
These solutions are unstable; crystallization can
usually be stimulated by adding a “seed crystal” or
scratching the side of the flask.
17. Solutions
Factors Affecting Solubility
• Chemists use the axiom
“like dissolves like”:
Polar substances tend to
dissolve in polar solvents.
Nonpolar substances tend
to dissolve in nonpolar
solvents.
21. Solutions
Gases in Solution
• In general, the
solubility of gases in
water increases with
increasing mass.
• Larger molecules
have stronger
dispersion forces.
22. Solutions
Gases in Solution
• The solubility of
liquids and solids
does not change
appreciably with
pressure.
• The solubility of a
gas in a liquid is
directly proportional
to its pressure.
23. Solutions
Henry’s Law
Sg = kPg
where
• Sg is the solubility of the
gas;
• k is the Henry’s law
constant for that gas in
that solvent;
• Pg is the partial
pressure of the gas
above the liquid.
25. Solutions
Temperature
• The opposite is true
of gases:
Carbonated soft
drinks are more
“bubbly” if stored in
the refrigerator.
Warm lakes have
less O2 dissolved in
them than cool lakes.
28. Solutions
Parts per Million and
Parts per Billion
ppm =
mass of A in solution
total mass of solution
× 106
Parts per Million (ppm)
Parts per Billion (ppb)
ppb =
mass of A in solution
total mass of solution
× 109
29. Solutions
moles of A
total moles in solution
XA =
Mole Fraction (X)
• In some applications, one needs the
mole fraction of solvent, not solute—
make sure you find the quantity you
need!
30. Solutions
mol of solute
L of solution
M =
Molarity (M)
• You will recall this concentration
measure from Chapter 4.
• Because volume is temperature
dependent, molarity can change with
temperature.
31. Solutions
mol of solute
kg of solvent
m =
Molality (m)
Because both moles and mass do not
change with temperature, molality
(unlike molarity) is not temperature
dependent.
32. Solutions
Changing Molarity to Molality
If we know the
density of the
solution, we can
calculate the
molality from the
molarity, and vice
versa.
33. Solutions
Colligative Properties
• Changes in colligative properties
depend only on the number of solute
particles present, not on the identity of
the solute particles.
• Among colligative properties are
Vapor pressure lowering
Boiling point elevation
Melting point depression
Osmotic pressure
34. Solutions
Vapor Pressure
Because of solute-
solvent intermolecular
attraction, higher
concentrations of
nonvolatile solutes
make it harder for
solvent to escape to
the vapor phase.
36. Solutions
Raoult’s Law
PA = XAP°A
where
• XA is the mole fraction of compound A
• P°A is the normal vapor pressure of A at
that temperature
NOTE: This is one of those times when you
want to make sure you have the vapor
pressure of the solvent.
37. Solutions
Boiling Point Elevation and
Freezing Point Depression
Nonvolatile solute-
solvent interactions
also cause solutions
to have higher boiling
points and lower
freezing points than
the pure solvent.
38. Solutions
Boiling Point Elevation
The change in boiling
point is proportional to
the molality of the
solution:
∆Tb = Kb m
where Kb is the molal
boiling point elevation
constant, a property of
the solvent.∆Tb is added to the normal
boiling point of the solvent.
39. Solutions
Freezing Point Depression
• The change in freezing
point can be found
similarly:
∆Tf = Kf m
• Here Kf is the molal
freezing point
depression constant of
the solvent.
∆Tf is subtracted from the normal
freezing point of the solvent.
40. Solutions
Boiling Point Elevation and
Freezing Point Depression
Note that in both
equations, ∆T does
not depend on what
the solute is, but
only on how many
particles are
dissolved.
∆Tb = Kb m
∆Tf = Kf m
41. Solutions
Colligative Properties of
Electrolytes
Since these properties depend on the number of
particles dissolved, solutions of electrolytes (which
dissociate in solution) should show greater changes
than those of nonelectrolytes.
44. Solutions
van’t Hoff Factor
Some Na+
and Cl−
reassociate for a
short time, so the
true concentration of
particles is
somewhat less than
two times the
concentration of
NaCl.
45. Solutions
The van’t Hoff Factor
• Reassociation is
more likely at higher
concentration.
• Therefore, the
number of particles
present is
concentration
dependent.
46. Solutions
The van’t Hoff Factor
We modify the
previous equations
by multiplying by the
van’t Hoff factor, i
∆Tf = Kf m i
47. Solutions
Osmosis
• Some substances form semipermeable
membranes, allowing some smaller
particles to pass through, but blocking
other larger particles.
• In biological systems, most
semipermeable membranes allow water
to pass through, but solutes are not free
to do so.
48. Solutions
Osmosis
In osmosis, there is net movement of solvent from
the area of higher solvent concentration (lower
solute concentration) to the are of lower solvent
concentration (higher solute concentration).
49. Solutions
Osmotic Pressure
• The pressure required to stop osmosis,
known as osmotic pressure, π, is
n
V
π = ( )RT = MRT
where M is the molarity of the solution
If the osmotic pressure is the same on both sides
of a membrane (i.e., the concentrations are the
same), the solutions are isotonic.
50. Solutions
Osmosis in Blood Cells
• If the solute
concentration outside
the cell is greater than
that inside the cell, the
solution is hypertonic.
• Water will flow out of
the cell, and crenation
results.
51. Solutions
Osmosis in Cells
• If the solute
concentration outside
the cell is less than
that inside the cell, the
solution is hypotonic.
• Water will flow into the
cell, and hemolysis
results.
52. Solutions
Molar Mass from
Colligative Properties
We can use the
effects of a colligative
property such as
osmotic pressure to
determine the molar
mass of a compound.
55. Solutions
Colloids in Biological Systems
Some molecules have
a polar, hydrophilic
(water-loving) end and
a nonpolar,
hydrophobic (water-
hating) end.