This document summarizes key concepts about solutions from sections 13.1-13.5 of a chemistry textbook. It discusses the solution process, factors that affect solubility such as temperature and pressure, and different ways of expressing concentration including mass percentage, molarity, and molality. It also covers colligative properties of solutions such as vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, and freezing point depression. Colligative properties depend only on the number of solute particles and are greater for electrolyte solutions which dissociate into ions.
I hope You all like it. I hope It is very beneficial for you all. I really thought that you all get enough knowledge from this presentation. This presentation is about materials and their classifications. After you read this presentation you knowledge is not as before.
Discusses the chemical of slightly soluble compounds. Ksp and factors affecting solubility are included as well as solved problems.
**More good stuff available at:
www.wsautter.com
and
http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=wnsautter&aq=f
This is aimed to explain the isolation of carbohydrates and starch from plant source. To also verify the presence of carbohydrates from the isolation process through several qualitative tests and qualitative tests for monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
I hope You all like it. I hope It is very beneficial for you all. I really thought that you all get enough knowledge from this presentation. This presentation is about materials and their classifications. After you read this presentation you knowledge is not as before.
Discusses the chemical of slightly soluble compounds. Ksp and factors affecting solubility are included as well as solved problems.
**More good stuff available at:
www.wsautter.com
and
http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=wnsautter&aq=f
This is aimed to explain the isolation of carbohydrates and starch from plant source. To also verify the presence of carbohydrates from the isolation process through several qualitative tests and qualitative tests for monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
Solutions: types and properties of solutions. Units of concentration, ideal and real
solutions. Henry’s law, distribution of solids between two immiscible liquids, distribution
law. Partition coefficient and solvent extraction.
1. Solutions
Chapter 13
Properties of Solutions
Section 13.1-13.5 are covered
Chemistry, The Central Science, 11th edition
Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.;
and Bruce E. Bursten
1
2. Solutions
13.1) The Solution Process
• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two
or more pure substances.
• In a solution, the solute is dispersed uniformly
throughout the solvent.
2
14. Solutions
3.2) Saturated Solutions and Solubility
• Saturated
Solvent holds as much
solute as is possible at that
temperature.
Dissolved solute is in
dynamic equilibrium with
solid solute particles.
The amount of solute
needed to form a saturated
solution in a given quantity
of solvent at a specified
temperature is known as
the Solubility of that solute.
Solute + Solvent Solution
dissolve
crystallize
15. Solutions
Types of Solutions
• Unsaturated
Less than the
maximum amount of
solute for that
temperature is
dissolved in the
solvent.
16. Solutions
Types of Solutions
• Supersaturated
Solvent holds more solute than is normally
possible at that temperature.
These solutions are unstable; crystallization can
usually be stimulated by adding a ―seed crystal‖ or
scratching the side of the flask.
17. Solutions
17
For example, the solubility of NaCl in water at 0 C is 35.7 g per 100 ml of water.
This is the maximum amount of NaCl (35.7 g) that can be dissolved in 100 ml of
water to give a stable equilibrium solution at 0 C.
If we dissolve less than 35.7 g of NaCl in 100 ml of water at 0 C, this will form
unsaturated solution.
If we dissolve greater than 35.7 g of NaCl in 100 ml of water at 0 C, this will
form supersaturated solution.
18. Solutions
13.3) Factors Affecting Solubility
• Chemists use the axiom
―like dissolves like‖:
Polar substances tend to
dissolve in polar solvents.
Nonpolar substances tend
to dissolve in nonpolar
solvents.
The extent to which one substance dissolves in another depends
on the nature of both the solute and solvent (solute-solvent
interactions). It also depends on Temperature and,
at least for gases, on Pressure.
22. Solutions
Gases in Solution
• In general, the
solubility of gases in
water increases with
increasing mass.
• Larger molecules
have stronger
dispersion forces.
23. Solutions
Gases in Solution
• The solubility of
liquids and solids
does not change
appreciably with
pressure.
• The solubility of a
gas in a liquid is
directly proportional
to its pressure.
24. Solutions
Henry’s Law
Sg = kPg
where
• Sg is the solubility of
the gas;
• k is the Henry’s law
constant for that gas in
that solvent;
• Pg is the partial
pressure of the gas
above the liquid.
26. Solutions
Temperature
• The opposite is true
of gases:
Carbonated soft
drinks are more
―bubbly‖ if stored in
the refrigerator.
Warm lakes have
less O2 dissolved in
them than cool lakes.
29. Solutions
Parts per Million and
Parts per Billion
ppm =
mass of A in solution
total mass of solution
106
Parts per Million (ppm)
Parts per Billion (ppb)
ppb =
mass of A in solution
total mass of solution
109
29
30. Solutions
SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.4 Calculation of Mass-Related Concentrations
(a) A solution is made by dissolving 13.5 g of glucose (C6H12O6) in 0.100 kg of water. What is the mass
percentage of solute in this solution? (b) A 2.5-g sample of groundwater was found to contain 5.4g of
Zn2+ What is the concentration of Zn2+ in parts per million?
PRACTICE EXERCISE
(a) Calculate the mass percentage of NaCl in a solution containing 1.50 g of NaCl in 50.0 g of water.
(b) A commercial bleaching solution contains 3.62 mass % sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl. What is the
mass of NaOCl in a bottle containing 2500 g of bleaching solution?
Answers: (a) 2.91%, (b) 90.5 g of NaOCl
Comment: The mass percentage of water in this solution is (100 – 11.9)% = 88.1%.
(b) Analyze: In this case we are given the number of micrograms of solute. Because 1g is
1 10–6 g, 5.4g = 5.4 10–6 g.
30
31. Solutions
moles of A
total moles in solution
XA =
Mole Fraction (X)
• In some applications, one needs the
mole fraction of solvent, not solute—
make sure you find the quantity you
need!
31
32. Solutions
mol of solute
Volume of solution (in Liters)
M =
Molarity (M)
• You will recall this concentration
measure from Chapter 4.
• Because volume is temperature
dependent, molarity can change with
temperature.
32
33. Solutions
mol of solute
kg of solvent
m =
Molality (m)
Because both moles and mass do not
change with temperature, molality
(unlike molarity) is not temperature
dependent.
33
34. Solutions
SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.5 Calculation of Molality
A solution is made by dissolving 4.35 g glucose (C6H12O6) in 25.0 mL of water at 25°C. Calculate the
molality of glucose in the solution.
PRACTICE EXERCISE
What is the molality of a solution made by dissolving 36.5 g of naphthalene (C10H8) in 425 g of toluene
(C7H8)?
Answer: 0.670 m
Solution
Solve: Use the molar mass of glucose, 180.2 g/mol, to convert grams to moles:
Because water has a density of 1.00 g/mL, the mass of the solvent is
Finally, use Equation 13.9 to obtain the molality:
34
35. Solutions
SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.6 Calculation of Mole Fraction and Molality
An aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid contains 36% HCl by mass. (a) Calculate the mole fraction of
HCl in the solution. (b) Calculate the molality of HCl in the solution.
Solve: (a) To calculate the mole fraction of HCl, we convert the masses of HCl and H2O to moles
and then use Equation 13.7:
35
36. Solutions
PRACTICE EXERCISE
A commercial bleach solution contains 3.62 mass % NaOCl in water. Calculate (a) the molality and (b)
the mole fraction of NaOCl in the solution.
Answers: (a) 0.505 m, (b) 9.00 10–3
SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.6 continued
(b) To calculate the molality of HCl in the solution, we use Equation 13.9. We calculated the number of
moles of HCl in part (a), and the mass of solvent is 64 g = 0.064 kg:
36
37. Solutions
SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.7 Calculation of Molarity
A solution contains 5.0 g of toluene (C7H8) and 225 g of benzene and has a density of 0.876 g/mL.
Calculate the molarity of the solution.
Plan: The molarity of a solution is the number of moles of solute divided by the number of liters of
solution (Equation 13.8). The number of moles of solute (C7H8) is calculated from the number of grams
of solute and its molar mass. The volume of the solution is obtained from the mass of the solution
(mass of solute + mass of solvent = 5.0 g + 225 g = 230 g) and its density.
Solve:The number of moles of solute is
The density of the solution is used to convert the mass of the solution to its volume:
Molarity is moles of solute per liter of solution:
37
38. Solutions
Changing Molarity to Molality
If we know the
density of the
solution, we can
calculate the
molality from the
molarity, and vice
versa.
38
43. Solutions
43
The solution that obeys Raoult’s law is called ideal solution.
Real solutions best approximate ideal behavior when:
1- the solute concentration is low, and
2- the solute and solvent have similar molecular sizes and
Similar types of intermolecular attractions.
Example; the vapor pressure of water is 17.4 torr at 20C.
Adding glucose to water so that the solution has Xwater = 0.80 and
Xglucose = 0.20 at constant temperature, calculate the vapor pressure
Over the solution.
Pwater = Xwater Pwater = 0.80 x 17.5 = 14 torr