This document provides an overview of pathophysiology concepts. It defines health and disease, noting that health involves well-being while disease is a deviation from homeostasis. It describes factors that can impact "normal" health indicators and outlines seven steps to health. It then discusses key pathophysiology topics like the functional changes caused by disease, disease prevention strategies, and the language used to describe pathophysiological concepts.
This document provides an introduction to pathology. It defines pathology as the scientific study of disease and discusses its main branches of general pathology and systemic pathology. It also outlines several key techniques used in pathology like microbiologic, molecular, immunologic, and morphologic analysis. The document then discusses key aspects of the disease process including etiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and molecular and morphologic changes. It provides examples of different types of etiologies and explains key pathology concepts such as reversible and irreversible cell injury, necrosis, apoptosis, and intracellular accumulations.
Sepsis is a life-threatening condition caused by the body's immune response to an infection which results in organ damage. It arises from infection in the bloodstream (bacteremia) or presence of bacteria and their toxins in the blood. Common signs include fever, increased heart rate and respiratory rate, and confusion. Severe sepsis occurs when organ function is impaired. Treatment involves antibiotics, IV fluids, vasopressors, and organ support. Sepsis is diagnosed through blood tests and culture of bodily fluids.
This document provides an overview of blood and circulatory system disorders. It begins with a review of the circulatory system and its components. It then discusses blood vessels including arteries, veins, and capillaries. Next, it covers the components and functions of blood, including plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The document proceeds to describe various blood disorders such as anemias, hemolytic anemia, sickle cell anemia, and aplastic anemia. It provides details on diagnostic tests and blood therapies for treating various blood-related conditions.
The document provides an overview of tests used to assess the hematology system. It discusses the composition of blood including erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets, and hematopoiesis. Diagnostic tests are outlined including complete blood count, coagulation tests, platelet aggregation test, leukocyte alkaline phosphatase test, serum iron tests, bone marrow examination, lymph node biopsy, and radiological studies. The goal of these tests is to evaluate blood cellular components, clotting ability, and detect any abnormalities in the hematology system.
This document contains summaries of pathology slides from 8 labs examining various organs. Each lab contains 3-4 cases that note the organ, lesions observed on microscopy, and diagnosis. The lesions involve different types of inflammation, including acute, chronic, suppurative, catarrhal, and others. A wide variety of organs are discussed, including lung, heart, blood vessels, brain, stomach, intestine, liver and more. For each case, the specific microscopic findings leading to the diagnosis of a particular inflammatory condition are presented.
The document discusses various laboratory investigations that may be advised by dentists. It describes tests related to hematology, biochemistry including renal function tests, liver function tests, lipid analysis, and electrolyte analysis. It provides reference ranges for common tests and discusses conditions that could cause increases or decreases in certain markers. The tests can help dentists screen for systemic conditions, establish diagnoses, and guide treatment and management of patients.
Renal stones, also known as kidney stones, form in the urinary tract and can affect any part from the kidneys to the bladder. Risk factors include metabolic abnormalities, warm climates, certain diets, genetics, and lifestyle. The five major types of renal stones are calcium phosphate, calcium oxalate, uric acid, cysteine, and struvite. Symptoms include severe side and back pain, painful urination, hematuria, and nausea. Diagnostic tests include imaging like ultrasounds and CT scans as well as urine and blood tests. Treatment options depend on the size and location of the stone and include shockwave lithotripsy, percutaneous nephrolithotomy, ureter
This document defines and describes various basic terminology used in pathology. It begins by defining pathology as the scientific study of disease and alterations that occur due to abnormal influences like bacteria and viruses. It then provides definitions and descriptions of key terms including disease, classification of diseases, wounds, etiology, prognosis, diagnosis, pathogenesis, types of diseases (acute, chronic, idiopathic), course of disease, syndrome, teratogenic diseases, TORCH, venereal diseases, infectious diseases, mononucleosis ("the kissing disease"), incubation period, mutagenic agents, communicable vs. non-communicable diseases, bruises, splenomegaly, and hepatomegaly.
This document provides an introduction to pathology. It defines pathology as the scientific study of disease and discusses its main branches of general pathology and systemic pathology. It also outlines several key techniques used in pathology like microbiologic, molecular, immunologic, and morphologic analysis. The document then discusses key aspects of the disease process including etiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and molecular and morphologic changes. It provides examples of different types of etiologies and explains key pathology concepts such as reversible and irreversible cell injury, necrosis, apoptosis, and intracellular accumulations.
Sepsis is a life-threatening condition caused by the body's immune response to an infection which results in organ damage. It arises from infection in the bloodstream (bacteremia) or presence of bacteria and their toxins in the blood. Common signs include fever, increased heart rate and respiratory rate, and confusion. Severe sepsis occurs when organ function is impaired. Treatment involves antibiotics, IV fluids, vasopressors, and organ support. Sepsis is diagnosed through blood tests and culture of bodily fluids.
This document provides an overview of blood and circulatory system disorders. It begins with a review of the circulatory system and its components. It then discusses blood vessels including arteries, veins, and capillaries. Next, it covers the components and functions of blood, including plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The document proceeds to describe various blood disorders such as anemias, hemolytic anemia, sickle cell anemia, and aplastic anemia. It provides details on diagnostic tests and blood therapies for treating various blood-related conditions.
The document provides an overview of tests used to assess the hematology system. It discusses the composition of blood including erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets, and hematopoiesis. Diagnostic tests are outlined including complete blood count, coagulation tests, platelet aggregation test, leukocyte alkaline phosphatase test, serum iron tests, bone marrow examination, lymph node biopsy, and radiological studies. The goal of these tests is to evaluate blood cellular components, clotting ability, and detect any abnormalities in the hematology system.
This document contains summaries of pathology slides from 8 labs examining various organs. Each lab contains 3-4 cases that note the organ, lesions observed on microscopy, and diagnosis. The lesions involve different types of inflammation, including acute, chronic, suppurative, catarrhal, and others. A wide variety of organs are discussed, including lung, heart, blood vessels, brain, stomach, intestine, liver and more. For each case, the specific microscopic findings leading to the diagnosis of a particular inflammatory condition are presented.
The document discusses various laboratory investigations that may be advised by dentists. It describes tests related to hematology, biochemistry including renal function tests, liver function tests, lipid analysis, and electrolyte analysis. It provides reference ranges for common tests and discusses conditions that could cause increases or decreases in certain markers. The tests can help dentists screen for systemic conditions, establish diagnoses, and guide treatment and management of patients.
Renal stones, also known as kidney stones, form in the urinary tract and can affect any part from the kidneys to the bladder. Risk factors include metabolic abnormalities, warm climates, certain diets, genetics, and lifestyle. The five major types of renal stones are calcium phosphate, calcium oxalate, uric acid, cysteine, and struvite. Symptoms include severe side and back pain, painful urination, hematuria, and nausea. Diagnostic tests include imaging like ultrasounds and CT scans as well as urine and blood tests. Treatment options depend on the size and location of the stone and include shockwave lithotripsy, percutaneous nephrolithotomy, ureter
This document defines and describes various basic terminology used in pathology. It begins by defining pathology as the scientific study of disease and alterations that occur due to abnormal influences like bacteria and viruses. It then provides definitions and descriptions of key terms including disease, classification of diseases, wounds, etiology, prognosis, diagnosis, pathogenesis, types of diseases (acute, chronic, idiopathic), course of disease, syndrome, teratogenic diseases, TORCH, venereal diseases, infectious diseases, mononucleosis ("the kissing disease"), incubation period, mutagenic agents, communicable vs. non-communicable diseases, bruises, splenomegaly, and hepatomegaly.
Pathology is the study and diagnosis of disease. It has four main components: the cause or etiology, the mechanism of development/pathogenesis, structural alterations to cells (morphological changes), and the consequences of these changes (clinical manifestations). Pathology has evolved from autopsy and organ-based examination to cellular pathology and now utilizes various techniques including molecular pathology, genetics, immunology, and quantitative analysis. Key techniques used in pathology include autopsy, biopsy, cytology, animal experimentation, tissue/cell culture, histology, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, flow cytometry, image analysis, and molecular biology techniques like PCR and DNA sequencing.
Edema is the accumulation of fluid in tissues due to a net movement of water into extravascular spaces and is caused by increased hydrostatic pressure, reduced plasma osmotic pressure, lymphatic obstruction, or sodium and water retention. It presents as swelling and can occur in subcutaneous tissues, lungs, or brain. Treatment focuses on resolving the underlying cause through diuretics, positioning, compression, or other methods depending on the specific condition. Hyperemia describes increased blood flow due to arteriolar dilation during activities or inflammation, while congestion is the passive buildup of blood from impaired venous outflow. Both can result from conditions like heart failure but have different morphological appearances.
The document discusses cellular structure and function. It describes that cells are the basic living units of the body, with each organ composed of many different cell types. The two main types of fluid in the body are intracellular fluid within cells and extracellular fluid outside cells, which provides nutrients to cells. A normal cell maintains homeostasis through adaptations like atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and dysplasia in response to stress or increased demand. The main mechanisms of cellular injury are free radical injury, which damages lipids, proteins and DNA, and hypoxic injury caused by lack of oxygen leading to energy depletion and calcium overload within cells.
This document discusses edema, which is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitial spaces of tissues. It describes how water normally moves between blood vessels and tissues and is drained by lymphatic vessels. Edema occurs when fluid movement into tissues exceeds drainage. The main causes of edema include increased hydrostatic pressure, reduced plasma colloid osmotic pressure, lymphatic obstruction, sodium retention, and inflammation. Edema can occur in subcutaneous tissues, lungs, brain, and other body areas and cavities. The clinical consequences range from minor to life-threatening depending on the location and severity of the edema.
The document discusses hemodynamic disorders including edema, hyperemia, hemorrhage, hemostasis, thrombosis, embolism, and infarction. Edema is defined as increased fluid in the interstitial tissue spaces and can be caused by increased hydrostatic pressure, decreased oncotic pressure, sodium retention, or inflammation. Treatment for edema focuses on reducing sodium intake, using diuretics to increase sodium excretion, and aldosterone antagonists.
Descriptive epidemiological studies are used to:
1. Document the distribution and determinants of health-related events in populations without attempting to infer causality.
2. Describe patterns of disease by person, place, and time to identify potential risk factors and generate hypotheses.
3. Provide baseline data on diseases, health conditions, and their risk factors that can be used to plan interventions and evaluate control programs.
This document discusses the pathophysiology of myocardial ischemia and infarction. It describes how myocardial oxygen demand can exceed supply, leading to ischemia. Factors that determine oxygen demand and supply are explored, including heart rate, contractility, wall tension, coronary blood flow, oxygen carrying capacity of blood, and autoregulatory resistance in arterioles. The progression and vulnerability of atherosclerotic plaque is summarized. Clinical syndromes like stable angina and acute coronary syndromes (unstable angina and myocardial infarction) are defined and their presentations, diagnoses, and treatment approaches are overviewed.
This document discusses wounds and the wound healing process. It defines a wound and describes different types of wounds such as incisions, lacerations, contusions, abrasions, avulsions, puncture wounds, and amputations. It then explains the three main phases of wound healing: inflammatory, proliferative, and remodeling. Factors that promote wound healing and management of patients with wounds are also covered.
Pus is a fluid produced by the immune system in response to infection that contains dead white blood cells and bacteria. It forms when white blood cells are sent to fight bacteria in infected areas and die off. Pus can develop in cysts, untreated wounds and cuts, and some types of acne as the body's attempt to remove bacteria and dead cells from infected sites.
The document discusses pathology and cell injury and adaptation. It defines pathology as the scientific study of disease, including the causes, processes, development and consequences of disease. It discusses the classification of diseases and focuses on etiology (causes), pathogenesis (mechanisms of development), morphology (structural changes), and prognosis (functional consequences). The document also defines disease and discusses the classification of diseases. It explains the structure and function of cells, including cellular organelles. Different types of tissues are described. Cell injury and adaptation are discussed, including how cells can undergo reversible or irreversible injury from stress and the forms of cellular adaptation like hypertrophy, hyperplasia, atrophy and metaplasia.
Edema can be caused by increased hydrostatic pressure, increased vascular permeability, decreased colloid osmotic pressure, decreased protein synthesis or increased protein loss, or lymphatic obstruction. The major mechanisms are increased hydrostatic pressure, as seen in congestive heart failure, or increased vascular permeability during inflammation. Edema fluid is usually a protein-poor transudate when caused by hydrostatic or oncotic pressure changes, but is a protein-rich exudate with inflammatory causes due to higher vascular permeability.
This document provides information on infection control techniques for healthcare workers. It defines key terms like infection, communicable disease, and modes of transmission. It explains that universal precautions should be followed to prevent the spread of disease from contact with blood and body fluids. Proper hand hygiene, including washing hands and using hand sanitizer, is the most effective way to prevent transmission. Other important techniques include wearing gloves when contact with body fluids is anticipated, properly disposing of contaminated materials, and cleaning up spills by wiping from outside to inside. The document also demonstrates proper techniques for putting on and removing gloves.
This document provides an introduction to pathophysiology and discusses key concepts. It covers the etiology and pathogenesis of disease, clinical manifestations including symptoms and signs, and stages of disease progression. It also discusses concepts of normality in health and disease, including statistical normality, reliability, validity, and sensitivity/specificity of tests. Finally, it introduces epidemiology and discusses factors that affect disease patterns and levels of prevention.
Microbes cause disease through several mechanisms: (1) attenuation of the host's normal defenses allows commensal flora to cause infections; (2) highly infectious microbes can produce disease even in healthy individuals; (3) microbes enter the body through various routes and disseminate via person-to-person contact or vectors; (4) microbes evade and manipulate the immune system through strategies like antigenic variation and resistance to antimicrobials; (5) both microbial infection and immune response can directly damage host tissues.
FLUID ELECTROLYTE IMBALANCES AND ACID BASE IMBALANCES SreethaAkhil
This study examined the relationship between acid-base and electrolyte imbalances and survival outcomes in patients with low Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores admitted to the medical intensive care unit. The study reviewed medical records of 100 patients over 6 months. Metabolic acidosis was present in 67% of patients and mortality was significantly higher in those with low GCS scores. Sodium and chloride levels increased while potassium decreased more in patients with low GCS. Patients with both low GCS and hypernatremia or metabolic acidosis had the highest mortality rate of 71.4%. The results suggest low GCS is associated with worse outcomes, especially when combined with acid-base and electrolyte disorders.
This document provides an overview of cellular adaptation and injury. It defines four types of cellular adaptation - atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, and metaplasia. It also lists common causes of cell injury and describes the differences between reversible and irreversible injury. Specific changes that characterize necrosis and apoptosis are discussed. Examples of cellular adaptations and morphologies of reversible and irreversible injury are provided.
Pathology is the study of disease and involves examining organs, tissues, cells, and bodily fluids to diagnose disease and understand disease mechanisms. The main subfields of pathology include anatomical pathology, clinical pathology, surgical pathology, cytopathology, and forensic pathology. Pathology uses various techniques including microscopic examination, biochemical analysis, microbiology, and cell/tissue culture to make diagnoses and advance understanding of disease causes, processes, and outcomes.
This document discusses the classification and composition of cells and tissues in the human body. It covers:
1. The two main types of cells - somatic and germ cells. Somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes while germ cells contain 26 and are found only in reproductive organs.
2. Tissues are classified based on their regenerative abilities - labile, stable, or permanent cells.
3. The main components of cells - water, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, electrolytes, organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria and Golgi bodies.
4. The four main tissue types - epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissue - and their characteristics and functions.
Instruments and other things used for physical examinationHARISA MARDIANA
This document lists various medical instruments and supplies used during physical examinations, including a stethoscope, otoscope, ophthalmoscope, medical scissors, sterile gloves, thermometer, tape measure, percussion hammer, cotton balls, scalpel blades, tube of lubricants, small bowls, skin marking pencils, torch, paper towel, urinometer, kidney dish, and sphygmomanometer.
PN 1080 Unit 1 Intro to Pathophysiology.pptxRachelBurwell1
This document provides an overview of pathophysiology and key concepts related to the study of disease. It defines pathophysiology as the functional changes that occur in the body as a result of disease. For each disease studied, pathophysiology examines the normal anatomy and physiology, classification, causes, signs and symptoms, diagnostic tests, complications, and treatment. Homeostasis and its relationship to health and disease is also discussed. The document then covers various aspects of disease such as prevention, terminology, disease processes, characteristics, cellular adaptations, causes of cell damage, types of necrosis, and more.
This document discusses neoplasms and cancer. It begins by defining key terms like differentiation, mitosis, mutation, and apoptosis. It then describes the characteristics of benign and malignant tumors, noting that malignant tumors lack control of cell growth and can spread to other sites. The document outlines various diagnostic tests for cancer and explains how cancer spreads through invasion and metastasis. It discusses factors that can increase cancer risk and lists some treatment options like surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.
Pathology is the study and diagnosis of disease. It has four main components: the cause or etiology, the mechanism of development/pathogenesis, structural alterations to cells (morphological changes), and the consequences of these changes (clinical manifestations). Pathology has evolved from autopsy and organ-based examination to cellular pathology and now utilizes various techniques including molecular pathology, genetics, immunology, and quantitative analysis. Key techniques used in pathology include autopsy, biopsy, cytology, animal experimentation, tissue/cell culture, histology, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, flow cytometry, image analysis, and molecular biology techniques like PCR and DNA sequencing.
Edema is the accumulation of fluid in tissues due to a net movement of water into extravascular spaces and is caused by increased hydrostatic pressure, reduced plasma osmotic pressure, lymphatic obstruction, or sodium and water retention. It presents as swelling and can occur in subcutaneous tissues, lungs, or brain. Treatment focuses on resolving the underlying cause through diuretics, positioning, compression, or other methods depending on the specific condition. Hyperemia describes increased blood flow due to arteriolar dilation during activities or inflammation, while congestion is the passive buildup of blood from impaired venous outflow. Both can result from conditions like heart failure but have different morphological appearances.
The document discusses cellular structure and function. It describes that cells are the basic living units of the body, with each organ composed of many different cell types. The two main types of fluid in the body are intracellular fluid within cells and extracellular fluid outside cells, which provides nutrients to cells. A normal cell maintains homeostasis through adaptations like atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and dysplasia in response to stress or increased demand. The main mechanisms of cellular injury are free radical injury, which damages lipids, proteins and DNA, and hypoxic injury caused by lack of oxygen leading to energy depletion and calcium overload within cells.
This document discusses edema, which is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitial spaces of tissues. It describes how water normally moves between blood vessels and tissues and is drained by lymphatic vessels. Edema occurs when fluid movement into tissues exceeds drainage. The main causes of edema include increased hydrostatic pressure, reduced plasma colloid osmotic pressure, lymphatic obstruction, sodium retention, and inflammation. Edema can occur in subcutaneous tissues, lungs, brain, and other body areas and cavities. The clinical consequences range from minor to life-threatening depending on the location and severity of the edema.
The document discusses hemodynamic disorders including edema, hyperemia, hemorrhage, hemostasis, thrombosis, embolism, and infarction. Edema is defined as increased fluid in the interstitial tissue spaces and can be caused by increased hydrostatic pressure, decreased oncotic pressure, sodium retention, or inflammation. Treatment for edema focuses on reducing sodium intake, using diuretics to increase sodium excretion, and aldosterone antagonists.
Descriptive epidemiological studies are used to:
1. Document the distribution and determinants of health-related events in populations without attempting to infer causality.
2. Describe patterns of disease by person, place, and time to identify potential risk factors and generate hypotheses.
3. Provide baseline data on diseases, health conditions, and their risk factors that can be used to plan interventions and evaluate control programs.
This document discusses the pathophysiology of myocardial ischemia and infarction. It describes how myocardial oxygen demand can exceed supply, leading to ischemia. Factors that determine oxygen demand and supply are explored, including heart rate, contractility, wall tension, coronary blood flow, oxygen carrying capacity of blood, and autoregulatory resistance in arterioles. The progression and vulnerability of atherosclerotic plaque is summarized. Clinical syndromes like stable angina and acute coronary syndromes (unstable angina and myocardial infarction) are defined and their presentations, diagnoses, and treatment approaches are overviewed.
This document discusses wounds and the wound healing process. It defines a wound and describes different types of wounds such as incisions, lacerations, contusions, abrasions, avulsions, puncture wounds, and amputations. It then explains the three main phases of wound healing: inflammatory, proliferative, and remodeling. Factors that promote wound healing and management of patients with wounds are also covered.
Pus is a fluid produced by the immune system in response to infection that contains dead white blood cells and bacteria. It forms when white blood cells are sent to fight bacteria in infected areas and die off. Pus can develop in cysts, untreated wounds and cuts, and some types of acne as the body's attempt to remove bacteria and dead cells from infected sites.
The document discusses pathology and cell injury and adaptation. It defines pathology as the scientific study of disease, including the causes, processes, development and consequences of disease. It discusses the classification of diseases and focuses on etiology (causes), pathogenesis (mechanisms of development), morphology (structural changes), and prognosis (functional consequences). The document also defines disease and discusses the classification of diseases. It explains the structure and function of cells, including cellular organelles. Different types of tissues are described. Cell injury and adaptation are discussed, including how cells can undergo reversible or irreversible injury from stress and the forms of cellular adaptation like hypertrophy, hyperplasia, atrophy and metaplasia.
Edema can be caused by increased hydrostatic pressure, increased vascular permeability, decreased colloid osmotic pressure, decreased protein synthesis or increased protein loss, or lymphatic obstruction. The major mechanisms are increased hydrostatic pressure, as seen in congestive heart failure, or increased vascular permeability during inflammation. Edema fluid is usually a protein-poor transudate when caused by hydrostatic or oncotic pressure changes, but is a protein-rich exudate with inflammatory causes due to higher vascular permeability.
This document provides information on infection control techniques for healthcare workers. It defines key terms like infection, communicable disease, and modes of transmission. It explains that universal precautions should be followed to prevent the spread of disease from contact with blood and body fluids. Proper hand hygiene, including washing hands and using hand sanitizer, is the most effective way to prevent transmission. Other important techniques include wearing gloves when contact with body fluids is anticipated, properly disposing of contaminated materials, and cleaning up spills by wiping from outside to inside. The document also demonstrates proper techniques for putting on and removing gloves.
This document provides an introduction to pathophysiology and discusses key concepts. It covers the etiology and pathogenesis of disease, clinical manifestations including symptoms and signs, and stages of disease progression. It also discusses concepts of normality in health and disease, including statistical normality, reliability, validity, and sensitivity/specificity of tests. Finally, it introduces epidemiology and discusses factors that affect disease patterns and levels of prevention.
Microbes cause disease through several mechanisms: (1) attenuation of the host's normal defenses allows commensal flora to cause infections; (2) highly infectious microbes can produce disease even in healthy individuals; (3) microbes enter the body through various routes and disseminate via person-to-person contact or vectors; (4) microbes evade and manipulate the immune system through strategies like antigenic variation and resistance to antimicrobials; (5) both microbial infection and immune response can directly damage host tissues.
FLUID ELECTROLYTE IMBALANCES AND ACID BASE IMBALANCES SreethaAkhil
This study examined the relationship between acid-base and electrolyte imbalances and survival outcomes in patients with low Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores admitted to the medical intensive care unit. The study reviewed medical records of 100 patients over 6 months. Metabolic acidosis was present in 67% of patients and mortality was significantly higher in those with low GCS scores. Sodium and chloride levels increased while potassium decreased more in patients with low GCS. Patients with both low GCS and hypernatremia or metabolic acidosis had the highest mortality rate of 71.4%. The results suggest low GCS is associated with worse outcomes, especially when combined with acid-base and electrolyte disorders.
This document provides an overview of cellular adaptation and injury. It defines four types of cellular adaptation - atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, and metaplasia. It also lists common causes of cell injury and describes the differences between reversible and irreversible injury. Specific changes that characterize necrosis and apoptosis are discussed. Examples of cellular adaptations and morphologies of reversible and irreversible injury are provided.
Pathology is the study of disease and involves examining organs, tissues, cells, and bodily fluids to diagnose disease and understand disease mechanisms. The main subfields of pathology include anatomical pathology, clinical pathology, surgical pathology, cytopathology, and forensic pathology. Pathology uses various techniques including microscopic examination, biochemical analysis, microbiology, and cell/tissue culture to make diagnoses and advance understanding of disease causes, processes, and outcomes.
This document discusses the classification and composition of cells and tissues in the human body. It covers:
1. The two main types of cells - somatic and germ cells. Somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes while germ cells contain 26 and are found only in reproductive organs.
2. Tissues are classified based on their regenerative abilities - labile, stable, or permanent cells.
3. The main components of cells - water, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, electrolytes, organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria and Golgi bodies.
4. The four main tissue types - epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissue - and their characteristics and functions.
Instruments and other things used for physical examinationHARISA MARDIANA
This document lists various medical instruments and supplies used during physical examinations, including a stethoscope, otoscope, ophthalmoscope, medical scissors, sterile gloves, thermometer, tape measure, percussion hammer, cotton balls, scalpel blades, tube of lubricants, small bowls, skin marking pencils, torch, paper towel, urinometer, kidney dish, and sphygmomanometer.
PN 1080 Unit 1 Intro to Pathophysiology.pptxRachelBurwell1
This document provides an overview of pathophysiology and key concepts related to the study of disease. It defines pathophysiology as the functional changes that occur in the body as a result of disease. For each disease studied, pathophysiology examines the normal anatomy and physiology, classification, causes, signs and symptoms, diagnostic tests, complications, and treatment. Homeostasis and its relationship to health and disease is also discussed. The document then covers various aspects of disease such as prevention, terminology, disease processes, characteristics, cellular adaptations, causes of cell damage, types of necrosis, and more.
This document discusses neoplasms and cancer. It begins by defining key terms like differentiation, mitosis, mutation, and apoptosis. It then describes the characteristics of benign and malignant tumors, noting that malignant tumors lack control of cell growth and can spread to other sites. The document outlines various diagnostic tests for cancer and explains how cancer spreads through invasion and metastasis. It discusses factors that can increase cancer risk and lists some treatment options like surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.
This document provides an overview of pharmacology and common medical therapies. It defines pharmacology and describes how drugs can be used to treat diseases, relieve symptoms, and replace deficient hormones or enzymes. Various drug administration routes, mechanisms of action, and factors influencing drug effects are examined. Common medical therapies including physiotherapy, occupational therapy, nutrition, and complementary/alternative approaches like herbalism and aromatherapy are also summarized.
The document summarizes key aspects of the immune system. It describes the components of the immune system including lymphoid structures, immune cells, and tissues responsible for immune cell development. It also discusses the nonspecific and specific immune responses, antibodies, immunity types, hypersensitivity reactions, and immunodeficiencies.
The document discusses inflammation and healing. It describes the three lines of defense in the body against pathogens: mechanical barriers, inflammation, and specific immune responses. Inflammation is defined as a protective response to infection or injury and involves redness, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function. The stages of acute inflammation and factors that influence the inflammatory response like chemical mediators are examined. Treatment options for inflammation including medications are also reviewed.
The document describes a sepsis innovation portfolio comprised of therapeutics, diagnostics, devices, and digital health solutions to transform sepsis diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring. It summarizes several projects, including a portable monitoring system for early sepsis detection using a sensor ring, a rapid diagnostic panel to detect endothelial cell damage and blood biomarkers of sepsis, an ultrasound device to non-invasively monitor lung function and fluid status, a point-of-care diagnostic using whole blood redox measurements, an immunotherapy using interleukin-15 to boost the immune response, and a diagnostic to directly detect microbial DNA and identify antibiotic resistance within 3 hours. The portfolio aims to improve patient outcomes and reduce healthcare costs.
The document discusses enteropathy in children in developing countries. It defines enteropathy as an acquired intestinal change seen in the absence of illness that may increase susceptibility to infection and malnutrition. While studies have found intestinal abnormalities are common, there is no consensus definition and the relationship between enteropathy, diarrhea, and malnutrition is unclear. The document calls for further research to better define enteropathy and understand its role and potential interventions.
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to disease and disease-causing organisms. It begins with definitions of important terms like acute, chronic, etiology, and prognosis. It then discusses categories of disease and predisposing causes. The focus is on studying disease through epidemiology and examining infectious disease transmission. Microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa are explored in depth. Methods of diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease are also summarized.
sle ins and outs elaborated in detail explainedBosan Khalid
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease that can affect multiple organ systems. It is characterized by periods of disease exacerbation and remission. Common symptoms include skin rashes, joint pain, fatigue, and kidney problems. SLE results from genetic and environmental factors that cause the immune system to produce antibodies that attack the body's own tissues and organs. Treatment involves managing symptoms with medications like corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and biologic therapies to control disease activity and prevent organ damage. Nursing care focuses on education, symptom management, preventing exacerbations, and addressing the psychosocial issues patients often experience.
This document discusses communicable diseases in children. It begins by defining key terms related to communicable diseases. It then discusses the characteristics of common childhood communicable diseases, principles of standard precautions to prevent transmission, and national/international immunization programs. The nurse's role in immunization and caring for children with communicable diseases is also addressed. Specific communicable diseases, symptoms, transmission methods, and precautions are explained.
The document describes the presurgical assessment process for a patient undergoing breast lumpectomy. It outlines gathering information on the patient's medical history including cardiovascular, respiratory, neurological, genitourinary, hepatic and musculoskeletal systems. It also describes assessing the patient's medications, allergies, psychosocial factors and ensuring informed consent is obtained. The document uses the example of a 45-year-old female with hypertension, diabetes and anxiety about her breast cancer surgery to demonstrate the presurgical assessment.
This document provides an overview of diseases and related terminology. It defines a disease as a condition that impairs normal functioning of the body. Diseases can be infectious, caused by microbes, or non-infectious such as cancer. Risk factors include genetics, age, lifestyle, stress, environment, and preexisting conditions. Diseases are classified and named through standardized systems. The mechanisms of disease include genetic, pathogenic, tumor/cancer, physical/chemical agents, malnutrition, autoimmunity, inflammation, and degeneration.
This document provides a summary of a presentation on Legionella. It discusses updates from international Legionella conferences, including trends seen in outbreaks and new research findings. Methods like whole genome sequencing are now being used to type Legionella strains during outbreak investigations. Guidelines and standards are in development from groups like ASHRAE to help minimize Legionella risks. The presentation emphasizes that while Legionella can pose legal risks, facilities can protect themselves by familiarizing with industry best practices and recommended methods for maintaining building water systems.
This document discusses different types of diseases including infectious, deficiency, genetic, and physiological diseases. It provides definitions and examples of each category. Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens like viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protists. Deficiency diseases result from a lack of nutrients in the diet. Genetic diseases are passed down from parents to children through genes. Physiological diseases occur when parts of the body malfunction. The document also discusses how diseases can be treated and prevented.
This document discusses different types of observational study designs used in epidemiology. It describes cohort studies, both prospective and retrospective, as well as case-control studies. Prospective cohort studies follow groups of subjects over time to observe outcomes based on exposures. Retrospective cohort studies use historical data to compare groups. Case-control studies compare cases with a disease to controls without the disease to identify risk factors. Cohort studies can precisely measure exposure-outcome relationships but are time-consuming and expensive. Observational studies are prone to biases like confounding, selection, information, and measurement bias.
This document summarizes the evidence-based approach to managing male benign prostatic enlargement. It discusses the terminology, natural history, and management of lower urinary tract symptoms. The main treatment options for LUTS/BPO that are supported by evidence include alpha-1 adrenoceptor antagonists, 5-alpha reductase inhibitors, and combination therapy with both. Guidelines aim to guide best practice and provide consensus based on evidence.
2014 09-08 Personalized healthcare, a view in the near futureAlain van Gool
1) Professor Alain van Gool has experience in academia, pharmaceutical companies, and applied research institutes focusing on personalized healthcare, biomarkers, and 'omics technologies.
2) Personalized healthcare aims to stratify patients based on multi-level diagnoses and patient preferences to select personalized therapies.
3) A key challenge is translating complex biological data into information patients can understand to make healthcare decisions. Biomarkers must be validated from discovery to diagnostic tests to realize personalized medicine.
- Pharmacoepidemiology is the study of the use and effects of medications in large populations. It applies epidemiological methods to study drug effects and usage patterns in human populations.
- Several drug safety events throughout history led to the evolution and increased importance of pharmacoepidemiology, including the Elixir Sulfanilamide tragedy in 1937 and the Thalidomide crisis in the 1960s.
- Pharmacoepidemiology utilizes various study designs like case reports, case series, cross-sectional studies, cohort studies, and case-control studies to generate and test hypotheses about medication risks and benefits at a population level.
This presentation discusses why weight loss is not just about calories. Hormones, Environment, Stress are just a few reasons weight management is so challenging
The document summarizes the structure and function of the nervous system in three main divisions:
1) The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of the nerve network outside the CNS.
2) Neuroglia are supportive cells in the nervous system that form myelin sheaths and blood-brain barriers. The most numerous neuroglial cell is the astrocyte.
3) Neurons handle communication in the nervous system and are classified as sensory, motor, or interneurons. Impulse conduction in neurons involves changes in membrane potential and the firing of action potentials.
This document provides information on the nervous system and common neurological diseases and disorders. It begins with an overview of the key structures of the nervous system, including neurons, dendrites, axons, and myelin sheath. It then describes the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system. Several common neurological conditions are then discussed in more detail, including stroke, transient ischemic attack, encephalitis, meningitis, brain abscess, poliomyelitis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, dementia, Huntington's disease, cerebral concussion/contusion, and spinal cord injury. For each condition, the
The document provides an overview of the digestive system and common digestive disorders. It describes the anatomy and functions of the digestive tract organs, the processes of digestion and absorption, and neural and hormonal controls. Common manifestations of digestive disorders discussed include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, blood in stool, gas, and constipation. Dehydration and electrolyte imbalances are noted as potential complications.
The document discusses endocrine system disorders and diabetes mellitus. It covers the location and functions of endocrine glands, classification of hormones, control of the endocrine system through feedback loops, sources and effects of major hormones, and disorders that can result from excess or deficits of hormones. Specific attention is given to diabetes mellitus, including the different types, manifestations, diagnostic tests, treatment principles, and acute and chronic complications if blood glucose levels are not well-controlled.
The document summarizes the anatomy and physiology of the eye and visual system. It describes the main parts of the eye including the cornea, iris, lens, retina, and optic nerve. It explains how light enters the eye and is focused on the retina to initiate visual signals through the optic nerve. The document also discusses common eye disorders like myopia, hyperopia, glaucoma, and conjunctivitis as well as infections, injuries, and defects that can affect vision.
This document provides an overview of the nervous system, including its main components and functions. It describes the central nervous system including the brain and spinal cord, as well as the peripheral nervous system. It then discusses the various parts of the brain in detail, including protective structures like the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid. It also outlines the cranial nerves, spinal cord, spinal nerves, reflexes, and basic neuron structure and function.
The document discusses the respiratory system, including its purpose of transporting oxygen and removing carbon dioxide. It describes the anatomy of the upper and lower respiratory tract. Key points include that the upper tract has resident flora while the lower tract is sterile. It also discusses ventilation, gas exchange, control of breathing, diagnostic tests for respiratory disorders, and general manifestations of respiratory disease such as coughing, sputum, and breathing patterns.
The document is a chapter from a medical terminology textbook about male reproductive medicine. It includes learning objectives about the male genitourinary system, as well as sections on anatomy and physiology, spermatogenesis, sexual maturity, and ejaculation. Figures and diagrams are provided to illustrate the structures of the male reproductive system.
The document discusses urology and the urinary system. It covers the anatomy and physiology of the urinary system, including the structures of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It describes the process of urine production in the nephrons of the kidneys and the transportation of urine through the urinary system to be excreted from the body. It also lists learning objectives about the urinary system, diseases, diagnostic tests, and medical terminology.
This document provides an overview of chapter 10 from the third edition of the textbook Medical Language by Susan M. Turley. The chapter covers neurology and includes learning objectives, multimedia resources, and detailed descriptions of the anatomy and physiology of the central nervous system including the brain, cerebrum, lobes, ventricles, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord.
The document discusses the muscular system and orthopedics. It covers the anatomy and physiology of muscles, including the three types of muscles (skeletal, cardiac, smooth), origins and insertions, and related structures like tendons. It describes the specialty of orthopedics and different types of muscle movement like flexion, extension, abduction, and rotation. It includes diagrams of muscle anatomy and movements. It also provides learning objectives and multimedia resources for further study.
This document provides an overview of the musculoskeletal system, including bones, muscles, joints, and common disorders. It begins by describing bone tissue and classifying bone shapes. It then discusses skeletal muscle structure and function. Various joint types and structures are outlined. Common musculoskeletal disorders like fractures, dislocations, muscle tears, and bone diseases such as osteoporosis are then summarized. Diagnostic tests and treatment approaches for musculoskeletal conditions are also briefly reviewed.
The document discusses various skin disorders and lesions. It begins by reviewing the normal anatomy and layers of the skin, including the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. It then describes common inflammatory disorders like contact dermatitis, urticaria, atopic dermatitis, and psoriasis. The document also covers various skin infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and other microbes like impetigo, cellulitis, herpes simplex, and leprosy. Diagnostic tests and general treatment measures for skin conditions are also mentioned.
This document provides an overview of the chapter on dermatology from the third edition of the textbook Medical Language. It begins with learning objectives for the chapter, which cover topics like the anatomy of the integumentary system, allergic reactions, common dermatological diseases and procedures, and medical terminology related to the skin. The bulk of the document then describes in detail the anatomy and physiology of the integumentary system, including the layers of the skin, hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands, and nails. It also discusses the process of allergic reactions and lists some general dermatological diseases. Diagrams and links to multimedia are provided throughout for additional reference.
This document summarizes key concepts about ratios, proportions, and percents from Chapter 3 of a textbook on math and dosage calculations for healthcare professionals. It defines important terms like ratio, proportion, and percent. It provides rules and examples for converting between ratios, proportions, percents, fractions and decimals. It also explains how to use proportions to solve for unknown quantities, including setting up equations and checking solutions. The overall purpose is to explain essential skills for understanding relationships between quantities and solving dosage calculation problems.
This document describes the cardiovascular system and its anatomy. It discusses the structures of the heart including the chambers, valves, layers and muscles. It describes the major blood vessels including arteries, capillaries and veins. It explains the dual circulation of blood through the systemic and pulmonary circuits. Learning objectives cover identifying cardiovascular structures, describing diseases and procedures, and building medical terminology related to cardiology.
The document describes the anatomy and physiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) system. It details the structures of the GI tract from the mouth through the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum. It explains the functions of these structures in digesting food, absorbing nutrients and removing waste from the body. Key parts include the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and associated structures like the salivary glands, liver and pancreas.
Pictorial and detailed description of patellar instability with sign and symptoms and how to diagnose , what investigations you should go with and how to approach with treatment options . I have presented this slide in my 2nd year junior residency in orthopedics at LLRM medical college Meerut and got good reviews for it
After getting it read you will definitely understand the topic.
Breast cancer: Post menopausal endocrine therapyDr. Sumit KUMAR
Breast cancer in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) status is a common and complex condition that necessitates a multifaceted approach to management. HR+ breast cancer means that the cancer cells grow in response to hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. This subtype is prevalent among postmenopausal women and typically exhibits a more indolent course compared to other forms of breast cancer, which allows for a variety of treatment options.
Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
Congestive Heart failure is caused by low cardiac output and high sympathetic discharge. Diuretics reduce preload, ACE inhibitors lower afterload, beta blockers reduce sympathetic activity, and digitalis has inotropic effects. Newer medications target vasodilation and myosin activation to improve heart efficiency while lowering energy requirements. Combination therapy, following an assessment of cardiac function and volume status, is the most effective strategy to heart failure care.
Nutritional deficiency Disorder are problems in india.
It is very important to learn about Indian child's nutritional parameters as well the Disease related to alteration in their Nutrition.
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