Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert food energy from glucose into ATP energy through a series of metabolic pathways. It occurs in four main parts: glycolysis, oxidation of pyruvate, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain and chemiosmotic phosphorylation. These pathways take place in the cytoplasm and mitochondria and ultimately produce 36-38 ATP per glucose molecule through substrate-level phosphorylation and chemiosmotic phosphorylation. Cellular respiration and its production of ATP are essential for powering cellular work and processes.
About how cellular respiration occurs in Mitochondria, it discusses first the parts and functions of mitochondrion then the types of respiration and the 3 processes occurs in aerobic respiration.
About how cellular respiration occurs in Mitochondria, it discusses first the parts and functions of mitochondrion then the types of respiration and the 3 processes occurs in aerobic respiration.
Cellular respiration ppt, describes generalities about energy and ATP, and the three stages of cellular respiration: Gylolisis, Krebs Cylce and Electron transport chain.
Photosynthesis and respiration are reactions that complement each other in the environment. They are in reality the same reactions but occurring in reverse. While in photosynthesis carbon dioxide and water yield glucose andoxygen, through the respiration process glucose and oxygen yield carbon dioxide and water.
They work well since living organisms supply plants with carbon dioxide which undergoes photosynthesis and produces glucose and these plants and bacteriagive out oxygen which all living organisms need for respiration.
Photosynthesis is a process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds in presence of sunlight. Respiration is the set of metabolic reactions that take in cells of living organisms that convert nutrients like sugar into ATP (adenosine tri phosphate) and waste products.
Processes in photosynthesis are divided on basis of requirement of sunlight while respiration processes are divided on basis of requirement of oxygen. Hence in photosynthesis you have the light dependent reactions and the dark reactions while inrespiration there is aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
In photosynthesis light dependent reactions, ultra violet light strikes chlorophyll pigments which excites electrons leading to separation of oxygen molecules from carbon dioxide. In the dark reactions, carbon molecules now independent of oxygen are converted into carbohydrates and stored in plant cells as energy and food source. In aerobic cellular respiration oxygen is utilized to convert organic compounds into energy and in anaerobic respiration converts organic compounds into energy without using oxygen.
This presentation summarizes the major concepts about interactions of organisms while highlighting the ecosystem, competition, symbiosis and the ecological niche.
Cellular respiration ppt, describes generalities about energy and ATP, and the three stages of cellular respiration: Gylolisis, Krebs Cylce and Electron transport chain.
Photosynthesis and respiration are reactions that complement each other in the environment. They are in reality the same reactions but occurring in reverse. While in photosynthesis carbon dioxide and water yield glucose andoxygen, through the respiration process glucose and oxygen yield carbon dioxide and water.
They work well since living organisms supply plants with carbon dioxide which undergoes photosynthesis and produces glucose and these plants and bacteriagive out oxygen which all living organisms need for respiration.
Photosynthesis is a process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds in presence of sunlight. Respiration is the set of metabolic reactions that take in cells of living organisms that convert nutrients like sugar into ATP (adenosine tri phosphate) and waste products.
Processes in photosynthesis are divided on basis of requirement of sunlight while respiration processes are divided on basis of requirement of oxygen. Hence in photosynthesis you have the light dependent reactions and the dark reactions while inrespiration there is aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
In photosynthesis light dependent reactions, ultra violet light strikes chlorophyll pigments which excites electrons leading to separation of oxygen molecules from carbon dioxide. In the dark reactions, carbon molecules now independent of oxygen are converted into carbohydrates and stored in plant cells as energy and food source. In aerobic cellular respiration oxygen is utilized to convert organic compounds into energy and in anaerobic respiration converts organic compounds into energy without using oxygen.
This presentation summarizes the major concepts about interactions of organisms while highlighting the ecosystem, competition, symbiosis and the ecological niche.
A chart showing the fate of each part of an early embryo, in a particular blastula stage is called fate maps. It is done because the correct interpretation of gastrulation is impossible without the knowledge of the position which are the presumptive germinal layers (Ectoderm, Mesoderm and Endoderm) occupy in blastula.
Fate mapping is a method used in developmental biology to study the embryonic origin of various adult tissues and structures. The "fate" of each cell or group of cells is mapped onto the embryo, showing which parts of the embryo will develop into which tissue. When carried out at single-cell resolution, this process is called cell lineage tracing. It is also used to trace the development of tumors.
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the sequence of nucleotides (A, T, G, and C) in the DNA. It includes method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine.
The chain-termination method developed by Frederick Sanger and coworkers in 1977. This method used fewer toxic chemicals and lower amounts of radioactivity than the Maxam and Gilbert method. Because of its comparative ease, the Sanger method was soon automated and was the method used in the first generation of DNA sequencers.
published a DNA sequencing method in 1977 based on chemical modification of DNA and subsequent cleavage at specific bases. Also known as chemical sequencing, this method allowed purified samples of double-stranded DNA to be used without further cloning.
Maxam-Gilbert sequencing requires radioactive labeling at one 5' end of the DNA and purification of the DNA fragment to be sequenced. Chemical treatment then generates breaks at a small proportion of one or two of the four nucleotide bases in each of four reactions (G, A+G, C, C+T). The concentration of the modifying chemicals is controlled to introduce on average one modification per DNA molecule. Thus a series of labeled fragments is generated, from the radiolabeled end to the first "cut" site in each molecule. The fragments in the four reactions are electrophoresed side by side in denaturing acrylamide gels for size separation. To visualize the fragments, the gel is exposed to X-ray film for autoradiography, yielding a series of dark bands each corresponding to a radiolabeled DNA fragment, from which the sequence may be inferred.
Cloning is the process of producing genetically identical individuals of an organism either naturally or artificially.
It is the process of taking genetic information from one living thing and creating identical copies of it. The copied material is called a clone.
Nature has been doing it for millions of years. For example, identical twins have almost identical DNA, and asexual reproduction in some plants and organisms can produce genetically identical offspring.
Cloning in biotechnology refers to the process of creating clones of organisms or copies of cells or DNA fragments (molecular cloning).
Bacteriophage- types, structure and morphology of t4 phage, morphogenesisDr. Dinesh C. Sharma
Escherichia virus T4 is a species of bacteriophages that infect Escherichia coli bacteria. It is a member of virus subfamily Tevenvirinae (not to be confused with T-even bacteriophages, which is an alternate name of the species). T4 is capable of undergoing only a lytic lifecycle and not the lysogenic lifecycle.
Each cell of a multicellular organism contain the same genetic material, but the expression of the gene is different in different type of cell group. On the basis of expression requirement they are grouped in to
Structural Gene- Mostly expressed once in a life
Vital Gene- Involved in of vital biochemical processes such as respiration and need to be expressed all the time
Functional Gene- Genes are not expressed all the time. They are switched on an off at need
The regulation of Gene required in case of functional gene and its explained by Francois Jacob, Jacques Monod and Andre Lwoff (Nobal Prize in 1961)
From studies and predictions such as Dreyer and Bennett's, it shows that the light chains and heavy chains are encoded by separate multigene families on different chromosomes. They are referred to as gene segments and are separated by non-coding regions. The rearrangement and organization of these gene segments during the maturation of B cells produce functional proteins. The entire process of rearrangement and organization of these gene segments is the vital source where our body immune system gets its capabilities to recognize and respond to variety of antigens.
The cells of the B line synthesize immunoglobulins. They are either produced at a membrane (on the surface of the B-lymphocytes) or are secreted (by the plasmocytes)
Theory of preformation,
Epigenetic theory,
Theory of pengenesis,
Recapitulation theory,
Germplasm theory,
Mosaic theory,
Regulated theory,
Gradient theory
Theory of organizers.
Sericulture is the cultivation of silkworms to produce silk. Bombyx mori (the caterpillar of the domesticated silk moth) is the most widely used species of silkworms.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
2. ZOOLOGY
What is Cellular Respiration?What is Cellular Respiration?
The process of converting food energyThe process of converting food energy
into ATP energyinto ATP energy
CC66HH1212OO66 + 6 O+ 6 O22 →→ 6 CO6 CO22 + 6 H+ 6 H22O + 36 ATPO + 36 ATP
3. ZOOLOGY
Why are both Photosynthesis and CellWhy are both Photosynthesis and Cell
Respiration important to Ecosystems?Respiration important to Ecosystems?
Light is the ultimateLight is the ultimate
source of energy for allsource of energy for all
ecosystemsecosystems
Chemicals cycle andChemicals cycle and
Energy flowsEnergy flows
Photosynthesis andPhotosynthesis and
cellular respiration arecellular respiration are
opposite reactionsopposite reactions
4. ZOOLOGY
Why do plants need bothWhy do plants need both
chloroplasts and mitochondria?chloroplasts and mitochondria?
Chloroplasts useChloroplasts use
energy from theenergy from the
sun to makesun to make
glucoseglucose
MitochondriaMitochondria
convert glucose toconvert glucose to
ATP—the energyATP—the energy
currency of the cellcurrency of the cell
5. ZOOLOGY
What is ATP?What is ATP?
Adenosine TriphosphateAdenosine Triphosphate
– 5-Carbon sugar (Ribose)5-Carbon sugar (Ribose)
– Nitrogenous baseNitrogenous base
(Adenine)(Adenine)
– 3 Phosphate groups3 Phosphate groups
Energy currency of theEnergy currency of the
cellcell
The chemical bonds thatThe chemical bonds that
link the phosphate groupslink the phosphate groups
together are high energytogether are high energy
bondsbonds
When a phosphate groupWhen a phosphate group
is removed to form ADPis removed to form ADP
and P, small packets ofand P, small packets of
energy are releasedenergy are released
6. ZOOLOGY
How is ATP used?How is ATP used?
As ATP is broken down, itAs ATP is broken down, it
gives off usable energy togives off usable energy to
power chemical work andpower chemical work and
gives off some nonusablegives off some nonusable
energy as heat.energy as heat.
Synthesizing molecules forSynthesizing molecules for
growth and reproductiongrowth and reproduction
Transport work – activeTransport work – active
transport, endocytosis, andtransport, endocytosis, and
exocytosisexocytosis
Mechanical work – muscleMechanical work – muscle
contraction, cilia and flagellacontraction, cilia and flagella
movement, organellemovement, organelle
movementmovement
7. ZOOLOGY
Why use ATP energy and notWhy use ATP energy and not
energy from glucose?energy from glucose?
Breaking down glucose yields too much energyBreaking down glucose yields too much energy
for cellular reactions and most of the energyfor cellular reactions and most of the energy
would be wasted as heat.would be wasted as heat.
1 Glucose = 686 kcal1 Glucose = 686 kcal
1 ATP = 7.3 kcal1 ATP = 7.3 kcal
1 Glucose1 Glucose →→ 36 ATP36 ATP
How efficient are cells at converting glucose intoHow efficient are cells at converting glucose into
ATP?ATP?
– 38% of the energy from glucose yields ATP,38% of the energy from glucose yields ATP,
therefore 62% wasted as heat.therefore 62% wasted as heat.
8. ZOOLOGY
Cellular Respiration is a Redox ReactionCellular Respiration is a Redox Reaction
CC66HH1212OO66 + 6 O+ 6 O22 → 6 CO→ 6 CO22 + 6 H+ 6 H22OO
OxidationOxidation is the loss of electrons or His the loss of electrons or H++
ReductionReduction is the gain of electrons or His the gain of electrons or H++
Glucose is oxidized when electrons and HGlucose is oxidized when electrons and H++
are passedare passed
to coenzymes NADto coenzymes NAD++
and FAD before reducing orand FAD before reducing or
passing them to oxygen.passing them to oxygen.
Glucose is oxidized by aGlucose is oxidized by a series of smaller stepsseries of smaller steps soso
that smaller packets of energy are released to makethat smaller packets of energy are released to make
(Oxidation)
(Reduction)
9. ZOOLOGY
Cell Respiration can be divided into 4 Parts:Cell Respiration can be divided into 4 Parts:
1) Glycolysis1) Glycolysis
2) Oxidation of Pyruvate / Transition Reaction2) Oxidation of Pyruvate / Transition Reaction
3) The Krebs Cycle3) The Krebs Cycle
4) The Electron Transport Chain and4) The Electron Transport Chain and
Chemiosmotic PhosphorylationChemiosmotic Phosphorylation
10. ZOOLOGY
Where do the 4 parts of CellularWhere do the 4 parts of Cellular
Respiration take place?Respiration take place?
Glycolysis:Glycolysis:
– CytosolCytosol
Oxidation ofOxidation of
Pyruvate:Pyruvate:
– MatrixMatrix
The Krebs Cycled:The Krebs Cycled:
– MatrixMatrix
Electron TransportElectron Transport
Chain andChain and
CheimiosmoticCheimiosmotic
Phosphorylation:Phosphorylation:
– CristaeCristae
12. ZOOLOGY
Anaerobic Respiration (no oxygen required, cytoplasm)Anaerobic Respiration (no oxygen required, cytoplasm)
1. Glycolysis
(substrate level)
Glucose 2 Pyruvate
2 ATP 4 ATP (Net 2 ATP)
2 NADH
Aerobic Respiration (oxygen required, mitochondria)Aerobic Respiration (oxygen required, mitochondria)
2. Oxidation
of
Pyruvate
2 Pyruvate 2 CO2
2 NADH
2 Acetyl CoA
3. Krebs Cycle
(substrate level)
2 Acetyl CoA 4 CO2
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
4. Electron
Transport
Chain
(chemiosmotic)
10 NADH 32 ATP
2 FADH2 H2O
Oxygen
Total: 36 ATP produced
13. ZOOLOGY
ATP is made in two ways:ATP is made in two ways:
1)1) Substrate LevelSubstrate Level
PhosphorylationPhosphorylation (glycolysis(glycolysis
& Krebs cycle)& Krebs cycle)
2)2) ChemiosmoticChemiosmotic
PhosphorylationPhosphorylation (electron(electron
transport chain)transport chain)
Substrate-LevelSubstrate-Level
Phosphorylation:Phosphorylation:
Energy and phosphate areEnergy and phosphate are
transferred to ADP using antransferred to ADP using an
enzyme, to form ATP.enzyme, to form ATP.
Phosphate comes from onePhosphate comes from one
of the intermediateof the intermediate
molecules produced frommolecules produced from
the breakdown of glucose.the breakdown of glucose.
14. ZOOLOGY
GlycolysisGlycolysis
Glucose (CGlucose (C66) is split to make) is split to make
2 Pyruvates (C2 Pyruvates (C33))
– 11stst
: ATP energy used to phosphorylate: ATP energy used to phosphorylate
glucose (stored energy)glucose (stored energy)
– 22ndnd
: phosphorylated glucose broken: phosphorylated glucose broken
down into two Cdown into two C33 sugar phosphatessugar phosphates
– 33rdrd
: the sugar phosphates are oxidized: the sugar phosphates are oxidized
to yield electrons and Hto yield electrons and H++
ions which areions which are
donated to 2 NADdonated to 2 NAD++
→→ 2 NADH (stored2 NADH (stored
electron and hydrogen for the Electronelectron and hydrogen for the Electron
Transport Chain)Transport Chain)
– 44thth
: The energy from oxidation is used to: The energy from oxidation is used to
make 4 ATP molecules (net 2 ATP)make 4 ATP molecules (net 2 ATP)
This is substrate level phosphorylationThis is substrate level phosphorylation
because an enzyme transfersbecause an enzyme transfers
phosphate to ADP making ATPphosphate to ADP making ATP
Glycolysis produces very little ATPGlycolysis produces very little ATP
energy, most energy is still stored inenergy, most energy is still stored in
Pyruvate molecules.Pyruvate molecules.
Glucose 2 Pyruvate
2 ATP 4 ATP (Net 2 ATP)
2 NADH
15. ZOOLOGY
Oxidation of Pyruvate /Transition ReactionOxidation of Pyruvate /Transition Reaction
When Oxygen is present,
2 Pyruvates go to the
matrix where they are
converted into 2 Acetyl
CoA (C2).
Multienzyme complex:
– 1st:
each Pyruvate releases
CO2 to form Acetate.
– 2nd:
Acetate is oxidized and
gives electrons and H+
ions
to 2 NAD+
→ 2 NADH.
– 3rd
Acetate is combined with
Coenzyme A to produce 2
Acetyl CoA molecules.
2 NADH’s carry electrons
and hydrogens to the
Electron Transport Chain.
2 Pyruvate 2 CO2
2 NADH
2 Acetyl CoA
16. ZOOLOGY
The Krebs Cycle / Citric Acid CycleThe Krebs Cycle / Citric Acid Cycle
8 Enzymatic Steps in Matrix of
Mitochondria: Break down and Oxidize
each Acetyl CoA (2-C’s) to release 2 CO2
and yield electrons and H+
ions to
3 NAD+
+ 1 FAD → 3 NADH + FADH2.
This yields energy to produce ATP by
substrate level phosphorylation.
The first step of the Krebs cycle combines
Oxaloacetate (4 C’s) with Acetyl CoA to
form Citric Acid, then the remaining 7
steps ultimately recycle oxalacetate.
Two Turns of the Krebs Cycle are required
to break down both Acetyl Coenzyme A
molecules.
The Krebs cycle produces some chemical
energy in the form of ATP but most of
the chemical energy is in the form of
NADH and FADH2 which then go on to
the Electron Transport Chain.
2 Acetyl CoA 4 CO2
2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
17. ZOOLOGY
The Electron Transport ChainThe Electron Transport Chain
NADH and FADHNADH and FADH22 producedproduced
earlier, go to the Electronearlier, go to the Electron
Transport Chain.Transport Chain.
NADH and FADHNADH and FADH22 releaserelease
electrons to carriers/proteinselectrons to carriers/proteins
embedded in the membraneembedded in the membrane
of the cristae. As theof the cristae. As the
electrons are transferred, Helectrons are transferred, H++
ions are pumped from theions are pumped from the
matrix to the intermembranematrix to the intermembrane
space up the concentrationspace up the concentration
gradient. Electrons aregradient. Electrons are
passed along a series of 9passed along a series of 9
carriers until they arecarriers until they are
ultimately donated to anultimately donated to an
Oxygen molecule.Oxygen molecule.
½ O½ O22 + 2 electrons + 2 H+ 2 electrons + 2 H++
(from NADH and FADH(from NADH and FADH22)) →→
HH22O.O.
10 NADH 32 ATP
2 FADH2 H2O
Oxygen
http://vcell.ndsu.nodak.edu/animations/etc/movie.htm
18. ZOOLOGY
Chemiosmotic PhosphorylationChemiosmotic Phosphorylation
Hydrogen ions travel down their concentration gradient through a channelHydrogen ions travel down their concentration gradient through a channel
protein coupled with an enzyme calledprotein coupled with an enzyme called ATP SynthaseATP Synthase..
As HAs H++
ions move into the matrix, energy is released and used to combineions move into the matrix, energy is released and used to combine
ADP + PADP + P →→ ATP.ATP.
Hydrogens are recycled and pumped back across the cristae using theHydrogens are recycled and pumped back across the cristae using the
Electron Transport Chain.Electron Transport Chain.
ATP diffuses out of the mitochondria through channel proteins to be usedATP diffuses out of the mitochondria through channel proteins to be used
by the cell.by the cell.
http://vcell.ndsu.nodak.edu/animations/atpgradient/movie.htm
19. ZOOLOGY
ATP SynthaseATP Synthase
Multisubunit complexMultisubunit complex
with 4 parts:with 4 parts:
– RotorRotor – spins as H– spins as H++
ions flowions flow
– StatorStator – holds the rotor and– holds the rotor and
knob complex together in theknob complex together in the
cristaecristae
– Internal RodInternal Rod – extends– extends
between rotor and knob, spinsbetween rotor and knob, spins
when rotor spins which thenwhen rotor spins which then
turns the knobturns the knob
– KnobKnob – contains 3 catalytic– contains 3 catalytic
sites that when turned changesites that when turned change
shape and activate the enzymeshape and activate the enzyme
used to make ATPused to make ATP
20. ZOOLOGY
Review ATP Production:Review ATP Production:
1) Glycolysis1) Glycolysis →→ 2 ATP2 ATP
2) Oxidation of Pyruvate2) Oxidation of Pyruvate →→ No ATPNo ATP
3) The Krebs Cycle3) The Krebs Cycle →→ 2 ATP2 ATP
4) The Electron Transport Chain and4) The Electron Transport Chain and
Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation:Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation:
– Each NADH produces 2-3 ATP soEach NADH produces 2-3 ATP so
10 NADH10 NADH →→ 28 ATP28 ATP
– Each FADHEach FADH22 produces 2 ATP so 2produces 2 ATP so 2
FADHFADH22 →→ 4 ATP4 ATP
Total = 36 ATPTotal = 36 ATP
1 Glucose = 686 kcal1 Glucose = 686 kcal
1 ATP = 7.3 kcal1 ATP = 7.3 kcal
1 Glucose1 Glucose →→ 36 ATP36 ATP
How efficient are cells at convertingHow efficient are cells at converting
glucose into ATP?glucose into ATP?
– 38% of the energy from glucose38% of the energy from glucose
yields ATP, therefore 62% wasted asyields ATP, therefore 62% wasted as
heat (used to maintain bodyheat (used to maintain body
temperature or is dissipated)temperature or is dissipated)
– Ex. Most efficient Cars: only 25% ofEx. Most efficient Cars: only 25% of
the energy from gasoline is used tothe energy from gasoline is used to
move the car, 75% heat.move the car, 75% heat.
21. ZOOLOGY
All Types of Molecules can be usedAll Types of Molecules can be used
to form ATP by Cell Respiration:to form ATP by Cell Respiration:
Proteins, Carbohydrates,Proteins, Carbohydrates,
and Lipids must first beand Lipids must first be
broken down into theirbroken down into their
monomers and absorbedmonomers and absorbed
in the small intestine.in the small intestine.
Monomers may beMonomers may be
further broken down intofurther broken down into
intermediate moleculesintermediate molecules
before entering differentbefore entering different
parts of Cell respirationparts of Cell respiration
to ultimately form ATP.to ultimately form ATP.
22. ZOOLOGY
Anaerobic Respiration: FermentationAnaerobic Respiration: Fermentation
If there is NO oxygen, then cells can make ATP byIf there is NO oxygen, then cells can make ATP by FermentationFermentation
Without oxygen, Oxidation of Pyruvate and the ElectronWithout oxygen, Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Electron
Transport Chain do not operate.Transport Chain do not operate.
GlucoseGlucose →→ PyruvatePyruvate →→ LactateLactate
NADNAD++
GlycolysisGlycolysis 2 NADH2 NADH Reduction RxnReduction Rxn oror
2 ATP2 ATP Alcohol + COAlcohol + CO22
Fermentation yields a net gain of 2 ATP by substrate level phosphorylationFermentation yields a net gain of 2 ATP by substrate level phosphorylation
for every 1 Glucose. (Inefficient)for every 1 Glucose. (Inefficient)
Two Forms of FermentationTwo Forms of Fermentation::
Lactic Acid Fermentation (animals)Lactic Acid Fermentation (animals)
Alcohol Fermentation (yeast)Alcohol Fermentation (yeast)