AN INTRODUCTION TO PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS. CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS IS GIVEN. PRIMARY, SECONDARY,TERTIARY AND QUATERNERY STRUCTURES OF PROTEINS IS DISCUSSED. DIFFERENT TYPES OF BONDS PRESENT IN PROTEINS IS DISCUSSED.
AN INTRODUCTION TO PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS. CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS IS GIVEN. PRIMARY, SECONDARY,TERTIARY AND QUATERNERY STRUCTURES OF PROTEINS IS DISCUSSED. DIFFERENT TYPES OF BONDS PRESENT IN PROTEINS IS DISCUSSED.
This presentation provides brief and relevant description of eukaryotic cell organisation. Well labeled figures and pictorial representations are made to give easy understanding to the readers. References are added at the end of the presentation so the readers can get detailed knowledge from the referred books.
Biochemistry Of Hormones
Contains All Important topics with best key points....
Made By Sanjay kumar (Student Of PharmD Faculty of Pharmacy Hamdard University)
Cells are the basis of life—the basic structural unit of living things. Molecules such as water and amino acids are not alive but cells are! All life is comprised of cells of one type or another.
One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
In this section of the course, you will learn about the cell and all the parts that make it functional. You will also focus on the cell membrane, which is the structure that surrounds the cell and separates its internal environment from the external environment. It is a critical component because it controls what can enter and exit the cell. This section will also describe how cells reproduce to maintain homeostasis.Cells are the basis of life—the basic structural unit of living things. Molecules such as water and amino acids are not alive but cells are! All life is comprised of cells of one type or another.
One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
In this section of the course, you will learn about the cell and all the parts that make it functional. You will also focus on the cell membrane, which is the structure that surrounds the cell and separates its internal environment from the external environment. It is a critical component because it controls what can enter and exit the cell. This section will also describe how cells reproduce to maintain homeostasis.
This presentation provides brief and relevant description of eukaryotic cell organisation. Well labeled figures and pictorial representations are made to give easy understanding to the readers. References are added at the end of the presentation so the readers can get detailed knowledge from the referred books.
Biochemistry Of Hormones
Contains All Important topics with best key points....
Made By Sanjay kumar (Student Of PharmD Faculty of Pharmacy Hamdard University)
Cells are the basis of life—the basic structural unit of living things. Molecules such as water and amino acids are not alive but cells are! All life is comprised of cells of one type or another.
One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
In this section of the course, you will learn about the cell and all the parts that make it functional. You will also focus on the cell membrane, which is the structure that surrounds the cell and separates its internal environment from the external environment. It is a critical component because it controls what can enter and exit the cell. This section will also describe how cells reproduce to maintain homeostasis.Cells are the basis of life—the basic structural unit of living things. Molecules such as water and amino acids are not alive but cells are! All life is comprised of cells of one type or another.
One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
In this section of the course, you will learn about the cell and all the parts that make it functional. You will also focus on the cell membrane, which is the structure that surrounds the cell and separates its internal environment from the external environment. It is a critical component because it controls what can enter and exit the cell. This section will also describe how cells reproduce to maintain homeostasis.
It is whole study about animal cell . Componant of cell well described with their function . Structure of organals also seen in presentation . Also gives Homeostatic mechanism of body and how to wor it .
Cell divission frieflys described with their phases And types .
HUMAN CYTOLOGY ( CELL AND TISSUE )
PRESENTED BY
BY SONU SHARMA. ROLL NO. 504/16
3RD YEAR B.SC RADIOGRAPHY & IMAGING TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF RADIO DIAGNOSIS
PANDIT BHAGWAT DAYAL SHARMA
UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCE AND RESEARCH P.G.I.M.S. ROHTAK,HARYANA.
Contact : - +91-7015728336
Cell: The cell is the ultimate structural and functional unit of the body.
The three principal constituents of the cell are:
1. Cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm and its organelles
3. Nucleus
Anthropod-Borne Infections Introduction,Causative agent, Epidemiology, Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, Treatment and Role of Pharmacist of following infections, Malaria, Chikungunya and Filariasis.
Dengue ,
Introduction to Microbiology And Common Micro-Organisms, EpidemiologyMonika P. Maske
Introduction to Microbiology, Classification Of Micro-Organisms, Bacteria , Classification of Bacteria Depend on Shape and Characteristic Arrangement, Algae,Fungi, Moulds And Yeasts, Spores, Viruses, Protozoa, Rickettsia & Mycoplasma, Identification of Bacteria, Scope of Microbiology, Introduction to Epidemiology, Applications of Epidemiology,Definitions.
Introduction of National Health Programmes,Objectives, Main Activities, Ongoing National Health Programmes in India, National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Programme (NIDDCP), National Leprosy Eradication Programme (NLEP),National Mental Health Programme(NMHP), National Palliative Care (NPPC) , National Oral Health Programme (NOHP), National Organ Transplant Programme (NOTP), National Programme for Control of Blindness and Visual Impairment (NPCBVI), National Programme for Prevention and Control of Fluorosis (NPPCF),National Tobacco Control Programme (NTCP),Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP), National Programme on Health Care for Elderly (NPHCE), National Programme for Prevention and Control of Deafness (NPPCD), National Programme for Prevention & Control of Cancer, Diabetes, CVS Diseases & Stroke, b) Programme National Rabies Control (NRCP), c) National Viral Hepatitis Surveillance Programme (NVHSP), ) Six Vector – Borne DiseasesThey are chikn gunya, malaria, filariasis, kala azar, Japanese encephalitis and dengue, National Programme for Prevention & Mangement of trauma & Burn Injuries (NPPMTBI), National Pulse Polio Programme, Health Programmes Monitored by National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC)1. Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Containment, 2. National Programme on Climate Change & Human Health (NPCCHH), 3. Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP), 4. Yaws Eradication Programme (YEP) there Objectives and Functions and Outcome, Additional National Health Programmes and Role of Pharmacist in National Health Programmes.
Introduction To Pharmacoeconomics, Objectives, Need of Pharmacoecomics, Four methods of Pharmaeconomics Evaluation, Basic Terminology, Importance of
Pharmacoeconomics.
Introduction to Nutrition And Health, Introduction Of Balance Diet, Healthy Benefits of a Balanced Diet, WHO Recommendations For Balanced Diet, Nutrition Deficiency Diseases, Deficiency Diseases Induced Due To Deficiency Of Proteins, Symptoms, Treatments And Preventions of Kwashiorkor and Marasmus, Treatments And Preventions of Of
Vitamins, Treatments And Preventions of Minerals,Ill Effects Of Junk Foods, Types Of Junk Foods, Appealing nature of Junk Food, Adverse Effects of Junk Food, Nutritive And Calorific Values of Various Foods, Daily Calorific Requirements, Fortification of Food, Types of Fortification, Benefits of Fortification, Introduction To Food Adulteration, Safe Food Handling, Adulteration Of Foods, Adulterants And Their Harmful Effects, Artificial Ripening, Effects Of Artificial Ripening, Pesticides, Uses Of Pesticides, Effects Of Pesticides, Genetically Modified Foods, Advantages Of GM Crops, Potential Benefits (Long-Term Effects),Disadvantages Of GM Crops, Dietary Supplements, Types of Supplements, Benefits, Dietary Supplements And Their Roles, Indications, Nutraceuticals, Concept of Neutraceuticals, Nutraceuticals Benefits, Classification, Dietary Supplement Health And
Education Act (DSHEA), Medicinal Plants Used as
Neutracuticals, Drug – Food Interactions.
Introduction to Nutrition And Health, Basics of nutrition, Objective of nutrition, Classification of food, macronutrients, Carbohydrates, Functions of carbohydrates, proteins, Functions of proteins, Protein Requirements for Different Age Groups
, fats, Functions of fats, Sources, Functions And Deficiency Of Fat-Soluble Vitamins, Sources, Functions And Deficiency Of Water-Soluble Vitamins, minerals, Daily Requirement, Functions And Sources Of Trace Elements, fibres, Importance of fibre in diet, Water, Importance of water in diet.
Introduction To Pollution, Types of pollution,Water Pollution & Sources of Water Supply, Source of water pollution, Effects on health of water pollution, Water Born Disease, Treatment of water pollution or Purification of water , Importance of safe drinking water,Introduction To Air Pollution,Functions & Composition of Air, Source of air pollution, Effects on health, Control of Air Pollution, Introduction To Noise Pollution,Source of noise pollution, Effects on health, Control of Noise Pollution,Sewage And Solid Waste Disposal, Sewage Treatment Plant, Occupational Illness, Precaution against occupational disease, Environmental pollution due to pharmaceuticals,
Overview on Vaccine, Immunity, Types of Immunity and ImmunisationMonika P. Maske
Overview of vaccines, types of immunity and immunization introduction, Response of Vaccine In Body, Antigen , Antibody, Composition Of Vaccines, History of Vaccine, Types of Vaccine, Live attenuated vaccine (LAV), Inactivated vaccine (Killed vaccine), Subunit vaccine (Purified antigen), Toxoid vaccine (Inactivated Toxoid), Ideal characteristics of vaccine, On the basis of components vaccine are also divided, Immunity, Types of Immunity, Non-specific,Specific Immunity, Difference between Active and Passive Immunity.
,
Demography introduction, IMPORTANCE OF DEMOGRAPHY,COMMON SOURCES & INDICATORS OF DEMOGRAPHY, Demography cycle,Family planning,objectives,Efforts made in the past,individuals and organisations took initiative to propagate the need for birth control,Contraceptive methods,Various birth control methods like Behavioural methods, Natural methods, Chemical methods, Mechanical methods, Hormonal methods, Terminal methods, Post-conceptional methods,Role Pharmacist of family planning.
Mother And Child Health Introduction, Paediatrics or Child Health, Maternal and Child Health Programme(MCH), Objectives, Importance,Breastfeeding introduction, Composition of Milk, Other Vital Components of Breast Milk, Importance of Breastfeeding for Baby, Importance of Breastfeeding for Mother, Infant Milk Substitutes & Bottle Feeding,Effects of Bottle Feeding, Illness And Hospitalisation Risk, Pharmacists Role in Mother And Child Health.
National Health Policy Introduction, NHP 1983, NHP 2000, NHP 2002, NHP 2017, Seven Priority areas, Sustainable Developmental (SDGs), Public and Private health system in India, National Health Mission (NHM),Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), International Pharmaceutical Federation Development Goal (FIP),
Introduction to Social Pharmacy, Definition, Social Pharmacy as a Discipline, Scope of Social Pharmacy in Improving Public Health, Role of Pharmacist in Public Health, Concept of Health, Dimensions of Health, Determinants of Health, Health Indicators.
Introduction to Clinical Pharmacy Practice, Definitions and Aim, Objectives, Scopes or services of Clinical Pharmacy, Functions and Roles of Clinical Pharmacy, Qualities of Clinical Pharmacy.
Introduction of Water, Physical Properties of water, Chemical properties of water, Chemical properties of water, Hardness of Water, Type hardness of water, Difference between hard and soft water, Units of hardness, Methods of Softening of hard water and types of lime soda water, Zeolite softening process, Ion exchange process, Natural & Portable Water, Sterile Water for Injection, Water for Injection, Purified Water, Selection of Suitable Water for Use, Solubility of Pharmaceuticals, Methods of Expression of Solubility, Factors Affecting Solubility.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
3. o The cell is the smallest unit of living tissues.
o Cells of different tissues perform different functions.
A cell is made up of following structures:
1. Cell wall :
- It is the external boundary of the living cell.
- It is three layered str. Made up of lipids & proteins.
Function :
- It provide structure, support and protection for the cell.
4. 2. Nucleus :
- It is the largest structure present almost in the centre of a cell.
- It is more or less spherical in shape.
- It is bounded by nuclear membrane.
Function :
- Control heredity characteristics of organism.
- It responsible for protein synthesis, cell division, growth and
differentiation.
- Store heredity material in the form of DNA(deoxy-ribonucleic acid).
- Controlled synthesis of particular enzymes.
5. The nucleus contain,
a) Nucleolus b) Chromatin
a) Nucleolus:
- It is highly coiled filamentous str. Present in nucleus.
- It surrounded by membrane and contains numerous granules.
b) Chromatin:
- These are fibrous threads present in the nucleus.
- They are composed of DNA(deoxy-ribonucleic acid) and proteins.
- The chromatin threads carry genetic information.
6. 3. Cytoplasm :
- It is the region lying between the cell membrane and nucleus.
- The cytoplasm contains cell organelles like endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes.
Ribosomes :
- These are tiny spheres that contain ribosomal RNA and ribosomal proteins.
- These are the site of protein synthesis, 2 types of ribosomes-
i) Membrane bound ribosomes- these are attached to endoplasmic
reticulum.
ii) Free ribosomes- these are free in cytosol.
7. Organelles of cytoplasm :
Organelles present in the cytoplasm are,
i. Endoplasmic reticulum :
- It is the most extensive cell organelle present in cytoplasm.
- It consists of two membranes which are separated by a
space.
- Endoplasmic reticulum is of 2 types,
(a) Granular :
- It is also called as rough surface endoplasmic reticulum.
- It contain ribosomes.
- The ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
(b) Agranular :
- It is also called as smooth surface endoplasmic reticulum.
- It does not contain ribosomes.
- They store and release calcium.
8. ii. Golgi apparatus :
- It is a cup shaped structure.
- It is situated between the nucleus the apex of the cell.
- The stack of Golgi sacs has two defined regions Cis and Trans.
- It stores proteins and modifying them.
9. iii. Mitochondria :
- The mitochondria generate ATP hence called as power house of cells.
- The no. of mitochondria vary from cell to cell depending on their
energy requirement.
- It consists of 2 protein membranes,
1. An outer layer which is smooth.
2. An inner layer folded into sheets of tubules called cristae.
- Both these layers enclose a central cavity called matrix.
- Mitochondria made up of proteins, phospholipids and some
ribonucleic acid.
10. iv. Lysosomes :
- They are small spherical or oval Shap bodies surrounded by a single
membrane.
- They vary in number.
- The lysosomes breakdown bacteria and cell debris engulfed by the
cell.
- The damaged intracellular organelles are also broken down and
digested by lysosomes.
v. Centrosome :
- It is a small, rod shaped body found near the nucleus.
- It plays an important role during cell division.
11. vi. Microtubules :
- They are straight, hollow cylinders in shape.
- They maintain a cell shape.
vii. Vacuoles :
- It is the storage structure in a cell.
- It can hold food for later use or waste for removal.
12. Functions of cells
1. Ingestion and assimilation :
- The cell ingests chemical sub. Like amino acids from
intercellular fluid.
- These sub. are used to build up complicated sub. Like
proteins.
2. Growth and repair :
- The ingested and assimilated materials are used to synthesise
new protoplasm.
- This leads to increase in size and growth of the cell.
3. Metabolism :
- This involves 2 processes
a) Anabolism in which the ingested and assimilated food material is
used for growth & repair.
b) Catabolism in which food material is broken down to release
energy for various function of cell.
13. 4. Respiration:
- It involves transport of oxygen from lungs through blood to the tissues
and removal of waste products like CO2.
5. Excretion :
- The cell eliminates waste products resulting from catabolism into the
interstitial fluid.
- These products are carried by blood for elimination through lungs and
kidneys.
6. Irritability and Contractility :
- The cell responds to any stimulus (physical, chemical,
thermal)by contracting.
7. Reproduction :
- After growing to - an optimum size, cell divides into daughter cells.
- Reproduction of cells occurs by mitosis or meiosis.
14.
15. Fig. stages of mitosis
Mitosis
This occurs in 4 stages namely prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
16. It is process of reproduction which involves the fusion of
1) Spermatozoon from the male ( which contains 23 chromosomes).
2) Ovum from the female ( which contains 23 chromosomes).
- The spermatozoon and ovum also called as gametes.
- The fusion of these two ( male and female) gametes results in the formation
of a zygote which has the normal number of 46 chromosomes.
- This leads to mixing of genes from the male and female.
Meiosis
17.
18. One pair of chromosomes from the father and one pair from the mother are sex
chromosomes.
These sex chromosomes determine the sex of the child.
In the female, sex chromosomes are same and called as XX.
In the male, they are different and called as XY.
One chromosomes from each pair determines the sex of child.
If child has X chromosomes from mother and X from father, it is Female (XX).
If child has X chromosomes from mother and Y from father, it is Male (XY).
Determination of sex