DNA and RNA are nucleic acids that are composed of nucleotides and have important roles in heredity and gene expression. DNA contains the genetic material in cells and is a double-stranded helix that replicates in a semi-conservative manner, with each original strand serving as a template for a new complementary strand. RNA is single-stranded and exists in different types - rRNA, mRNA, tRNA - that help express the genetic code by translating DNA into proteins.
This is a continuation of the earlier slide with a name "Nucleotides". Please refer to the previous mentioned slide before moving to this slide for a better overall concept on nucleotides and nucleic acids.
This is a continuation of the earlier slide with a name "Nucleotides". Please refer to the previous mentioned slide before moving to this slide for a better overall concept on nucleotides and nucleic acids.
chemistry of nucleic acids,
history --> Discovered by JOHANN FRIEDRICH MIESCHER
central dogma of life
components of nucleic acids-->Nitrogenous base +pentose sugar +phosphate group.
structure of nucleotides --> purines and pyrimidens
minor bases in nucleic acids are 5-methylcytosine,N4-acetylcytosine, N6-methylsdenine, N6,N6-dimethyladenine, pseudouracil.
Biologically importanat Bases-->Hypoxanthine, Xanthine, uric acid.
Purines bases of plant --> caffeine,theophylline, theobromine
Biosynthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides can occur by a de novo pathway or by the reutilization of preformed pyrimidine bases or ribonucleosides (salvage pathway).
The pyrimidine synthesis is a similar process than that of purines. In the de novo synthesis of pyrimidines, the ring is synthesized first and then it is attached to a ribose-phosphate to for a pyrimidine nucleotide.
explains the breakdown of purine. source and excretion of purine is explained. hyperuricemia and hypouricemia is discussed. types of Gout, clinical features and treatment is included.
It contains an amino group, a carboxyl group and a side-chain that is specific to each amino acid. Act as a building blocks of proteins. forming parts of coenzymes. Works as a precursors for the biosynthesis of molecules such as heme.
this presentation covers about all the topics of nucleic acids.I made this presentation by combining too many presentations. and I also presented the same in the university and I got an A++ :).
best of luck!
chemistry of nucleic acids,
history --> Discovered by JOHANN FRIEDRICH MIESCHER
central dogma of life
components of nucleic acids-->Nitrogenous base +pentose sugar +phosphate group.
structure of nucleotides --> purines and pyrimidens
minor bases in nucleic acids are 5-methylcytosine,N4-acetylcytosine, N6-methylsdenine, N6,N6-dimethyladenine, pseudouracil.
Biologically importanat Bases-->Hypoxanthine, Xanthine, uric acid.
Purines bases of plant --> caffeine,theophylline, theobromine
Biosynthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides can occur by a de novo pathway or by the reutilization of preformed pyrimidine bases or ribonucleosides (salvage pathway).
The pyrimidine synthesis is a similar process than that of purines. In the de novo synthesis of pyrimidines, the ring is synthesized first and then it is attached to a ribose-phosphate to for a pyrimidine nucleotide.
explains the breakdown of purine. source and excretion of purine is explained. hyperuricemia and hypouricemia is discussed. types of Gout, clinical features and treatment is included.
It contains an amino group, a carboxyl group and a side-chain that is specific to each amino acid. Act as a building blocks of proteins. forming parts of coenzymes. Works as a precursors for the biosynthesis of molecules such as heme.
this presentation covers about all the topics of nucleic acids.I made this presentation by combining too many presentations. and I also presented the same in the university and I got an A++ :).
best of luck!
This is a lecture slide for MBBS, BDS, paramedical as well as for those who are interested in molecular biology, molecular life sciences, biochemistry, medical biochemistry, general biochemistry etc.
For the more elucidated and connected information, try to refer to the nucleic acids slides.
This slide presentaion contains information about Ribonucleic Acid. Its structure, types, components, bases and functions. Also, included in this presentation is the process of Protein Synthesis.
Dna replication and importance of its inhibition pdfssuserf4e856
A research topic submitted by some students of the first year in Al-Azhar Pharmacy in Assiut in 2020 in the subject of cell biology under the supervision of Dr. Omar Mohafez holds a PhD in biochemistry and is a professor at the same college.
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It might be very short but it is also helpful.
The genetic material of any organisms is the substance that stores information about structure, function and
Development of various characteristics of a living
organisms.
What are nucleic acidsWhy are these molecules so important to liv.pdfdeepakarora871
What are nucleic acids?
Why are these molecules so important to living organisms?
What are the basic structures of DNA and RNA? How are they similar? How are they different?
Solution
1.
Nucleic acids are the biopolymers or the molecules that allow the transfer of genetic material
from one generation to another generation.
These large biomolecules are necessary to all known forms of life.
The nucleic acids consists of nucleotides monomers linked together. Nucleotides consists of
nitrogenous base, five carbon sugar, phosphate group.
Nucleotides are linked together to form polynucleotide chains.
These are linked by a covalent bond and the linkage is between the phosphate and sugar
molecule and the linkage is called the phosphodiester linkage.
They are two types of nucleic acids they are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid ) and RNA
(ribonucleic acid ).
Phosphodiester linkage forms the phosphate sugar backbone of both DNA and RNA.
2. DNA contains the instructions for the performance of all cell functions.
DNA is a genetic material and it is organized into the chromosome and it is found in the nucleus
of the cell and it is copied from one generation to another generation.
RNA is essential for synthesis of proteins . The information contained within the genetic code is
passed from DNA to RNA and they results in the formation of proteins.
3. DNA is a double helical structure and it consists of purines and pyramidines which are four
nitrogen bases like adenine, guanine , cytosine and thymine and phosphate -deoxyribose sugar
backbone.
In a double stranded DNA adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine.
RNA is a single stranded molecule . It consists of phosphate ribose sugar backbone and the
nitrogenous bases like adenine ,guanine ,cytosine and uracil.
In RNA strand, adenine pairs with uracil and guanine pairs with cytosine. The nitrogen bases get
bonded to each other by hydrogen bonds.
The DNA and RNA are similar in having three nitrogenous bases like adenine, guanine and
cytosine and they are also similar in phosphate group.
They are different in nitrogen base like in DNA ,they have thymine as nitrogen base and in RNA
, they have uracil. In DNA ,they contain the five carbon sugar as deoxyribose and in RNA , the
five carbon sugar as ribose sugar.RNA is single stranded and DNA is double stranded..
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The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
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The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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3. SYNOPSIS Introduction. DNA. Occurrence. DNA as the genetic material. Chemical composition. Structure. Semi conservative method of replication. Monday, May 9, 2011
4. RNA Occurrence. Chemical composition. Brief account of structure and functions of RNA. rRNA, mRNA, and tRNA( clover leaf model ). Monday, May 9, 2011
5. Nucleic acids are linear mixed polymers of nucleotides. They are, therefore, poly nucleotides. The adjacent nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester bonds. Monday, May 9, 2011
9. Pyrimidines Monocyclic or single ring nitrogen bases. Pyrimidines are of three main types-cytosine(C), thymine(T) and uracil(U). uracil occurs in only ribonucleotides. Monday, May 9, 2011
10. Phosphoric Acid It is chemically H3PO4. The bond linking two phosphate radicals carries a lot more energy than the ordinary covalent bond. Association of phosphoric acid in nucleotides also provides the latter with acidic trait. Monday, May 9, 2011
11. Nucleosides Nucleoside is a condensation product of a pentose sugar and a nitrogen base. Monday, May 9, 2011
13. Nucleotide Formation. Nucleotides are phosphorylated nucleosides. They are formed by condensation of pentose sugar, a nitrogen base and at least one phosphoric acid residue. Monday, May 9, 2011
16. Discovery of Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are linear mixed polymers of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides. They are also called polynucleotides.The elements involved in their formation are C,H,N,O and P. Nucleic acids were first isolated by Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher (1868), from nuclei of pus cells and named nuclein. Fischer(1880), discovered purine and pyrimidine nitrogen bases while, Levine(1910), found phosphoric acid, deoxyribose sugar and four types of nucleotides to be component of nucleic acid. Monday, May 9, 2011
17. Chargaff(1949), found out that amounts of purines and pyrimidines were equal with adenine being to thymine and cytosine being equal to guanine. Frankin (1952) ,found DNA to be helix. Watson and Crick (1953) , proposed the double helix DNA model incorporating all the details. Watson and Crick along with Wilkins are awarded Noble Prize in 1962. Monday, May 9, 2011
18. DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid. DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is helically twisted double chain of deoxyribonucleotides which is the largest macromolecule and also represents genetic material of organisms and molecular basis of heredity. DNA present inside nucleus is called nuclear DNA. Many prokaryotes also possess extranuclear or extra-chromosomal small circular DNA segments called plasmids. Monday, May 9, 2011
20. Structure of DNA. DNA duplex has a diameter of 20A.The duplex is coiled plectonemically in a right handed manner just as a rope stair is twisted to form a spiral. This coiling produces alternate major(length 22A) and minor(length 12A) grooves. Each turn of spiral has a distance of 34 A. This length contains 10 deoxyribonucleotides in each chain so that the average distance between adjacent deoxyribonucleotides is 3.4A. The condition of other end of the duplex is reverse.The direction of nucleotide chain is 5’-3’ in one and 3’-5’ in the other chain. Nitrogen bases of the two chains lying opposite to each other are complementary between A and T and between C and G. Two types of forces stabilize the duplex and hold the two DNA chains together: (i) Hydrogen bonds between the complementary nitrogen bases of the two chains.(ii) Hydrophobic interactions between nitrogen bases. Monday, May 9, 2011
25. Linear DNA is the one in which the ends are free. In circular DNA, the two ends are covalently linked. Circular DNA occurs in prokaryotes(ex.bacteria) and semi-autonomous organelles(mitochondria and plastids).Linear DNA occurs in eukaryotic nuclei. Heredity: Cistron is that segment of DNA which specifies synthesis of a polypeptide.It is equivalent to a gene or hereditary unit. Cistrons containing introns or noncoding areas are called split genes. A change in the sequence of nitrogen bases changes the codons of a cistron. This produces a modified polypeptide or an in complete polypeptide. The phenomenon is called mutation. The smallest segment of DNA which can undergo change is called muton. DNA Functions 1.Hereditary Information. Cistrons. 2.Variations. Reshuffling of DNA molecules during meiosis. 3. Mutations. Changes in genetic material DNA. 4.Autocatalytic Function. Replication occurs at the time of cell division. 5.Heterocatalytic Function. transcription. Monday, May 9, 2011
26. RNA or Ribonucleic Acid. RNA or ribonucleic acid is a single stranded mixed polymer of four types of ribonucleotides. RNA is formed over the template or sense strand of DNA.The process of formation of RNA over DNA template is called transcription. In prokaryotes,the whole of RNA occurs in the cytoplasm,either free or inside ribosomes.In eucaryotes,RNA is found inside nucleolus(the site of ribosome formation), ribosomes,plastids,mitochondria and cytoplasm. These are three types of RNA-rRNA,tRNA,mRNAThey are differentiated by their sedimentation coefficient or Svedberg units RNA Functions. 1. RNA Primer. It is essential for DNA replication. 2. Ribosome’s. They are formed of ribosomal or rRNAs. 3. Expression of Genetic Code. RNAs are involved in expression of genetic code through transcription of messages. Monday, May 9, 2011
27. DNA Replication is Semi-Conservative : Replication is the formation of exact carbon copies of a substance. It occurs in case of DNA.Rather replication is an autocatalytic activity of DNA. The DNA structure proposed by Watson and Crick(1953) was based on its semiconservative replication with both the strands of DNA functioning as templates and producing new complementary chains.The new chain get permanently associated with the templates giving rise to two double stranded replicas. Replication proceeds is 5’----3’ direction in each strand. An RNA primer is required. Bases of exposed strands attract complementary bases. In one strand, DNA is formed in fragments called Okazaki fragments. They are sealed by DNA ligase. This strand is slow to be formed and is called lagging strand as opposed to other continuous or leading strand. Monday, May 9, 2011