The document provides a comprehensive overview of carbohydrates, their classification, and functions, as well as various biochemical tests for their detection. It also includes detailed information on the extraction and preparation of specific carbohydrates like honey, starch, pectin, and their uses in health and nutrition. Additionally, it highlights the chemical constituents and methods for identifying adulteration in these substances.

1. CARBOHYDRATE
AS A PLANT CONSTITUENT

2. ANUM ASLAM

3. CARBOHYDRATE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND
CLASSIFICATTION

4. CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are defined
as, Molecules consist of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
It is a major food source and a key
form of energy for most organisms.
They are often called as
saccharides.

5. By chemical definition….
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy alcohols (OH)
with potentially active carbonyl group, which
may either be aldehyde (H C O) or ketone (C
O)
general formula Cn(H2O)n.

6. CARBOHYDRATE CLASSIFICATION
ONTHE BASIS
OF FUNCTIONAL
GROUP
Reducing Sugars
Have at least 1
free aldo/keto gp
Non-reducing
Do not have any
free active gp
ONTHE BASIS
OF C NO
MONO
SACCHARIDES
ONTHE BASIS OF NO. OF
MOLECULES BONDED
TOGETHER
DISACCHARIDES
Sucrose
(glucose+fructose)
maltose
(gucose, glucose), lactose
(glucose galactose)
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
(3-10 saccharides)
(Aldo gp)
Trioses, glycerald
ehyde
Tetroses, eyrthros
e
Pentose, ribose
Hexoses, glucose
POLYSACCHARID
ES
(Keto gp)
DHA
Erythrulose
Ribulose
Fructose

7. FURTHER CLASSIFICATION

8. FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
 cell membrane
structural component.
 Intracellular mediater.
 significant fraction of
dietary calories for
most organisms.
 storage form of energy
in the body.

9. BUSHRA RUBAB

10. BIOCHEMICAL TESTS FOR
CARBOHYDRATE DETECTION

11. MOLISH TEST :
2ml orignal soln+2 drop of ethanol alpha napthol.mix well
+conc sulphuric acid along the sides of test tubes .
Voilet ring appear at the
junction Of 2 layers CHO PRESENT

12. OSAZONE TEST :
3 ml original soln +3 ml phenyl hydrazine + heat in
water bath for 1 hr. Allow to cool and observe the
shape of crystals
Crystal formation glucose present
NO Crystal formation glucose absent

13. FEHLING TEST:
1ml fehling sol A in test tube + drop wise fehling sol
B till the PPT of cupric hydroxide initially formed
& then dissolved.Now 2 ml of originl soln + heat
for few mint
Red Ppt form reducing sugar present
Red Ppt don’t form reducing sugar absent

14. FARAH KHAN

15. BIOCHEMICAL TESTS FOR
CARBOHYDRATE DETECTION (CONT)

16. RESORCINOL TEST FOR
KETOSES:
Also Called Seliwanoff’sTest
•Solution + Crystal of resorcinol Heated with
equal vol. Of Conc. HCl Pink colour is
produced(Ketoses)..
Examples:Fructose Honey and Hydrolysed
insulin

17. TEST FOR PENTOSES:
•Solution + EqualVol. of HCl +
Phloroglucinol------Red Colour is Formed.

18. KELLERS-KILIANI TEST FOR
DEOXYSUGARS:
Deoxysugar is present in Cardiac glycosides.
•Deoxysugar Dissolves in Acetic Acid +
• Ferric Chloride------TransferToThe Surface Of Conc.
H2SO4
Reddish Brown Colour is FormedWhichTurns Blue.

19. Furfural Test:
 Sample Of CHO + Syrupy Phosphoric Acid (Heat)
Furfural.
 Filter Paper is Moistened With a Drop Of 10% Anilin + 10%
Solution Of Acetic Acid Placed OverThe Mouth Of
TestTube..
 Now,TestTube is Heated For 30-60 sec.FromThe Bottom.
 Pink Or Red Stain is Appeared OnThe Reagent Paper.

20. JAVERIA RAHAT

21. EXTRACTION OF
CARBOHYDRATE

22. DEFINITION OF EXTRACTION
 The action of extracting
something, especially using
effort or force.

23. METHOD OF EXTRACTION OF
CARBOHYDRATES
The methods used for isolating carbohydrates
depend on the carbohydrate type, matrix, and
purpose or type of analysis.
 A commonly used method for extracting low
molecular weight carbohydrates from foods is
to boil a sample with a 70-80% alcohol solution.

24.  Monosaccharides and oligosaccharides
are soluble in alcohol solutions;
however, most proteins, polysaccharides
and dietary fiber are insoluble.
 The soluble components can then be
separated from the insoluble components
by filtering, soluble portion passes through
the filter and the insoluble part retained by
the filter.
 The two fractions can then be dried
using lyophilization.

25.  In addition, monosaccharides and
oligosaccharides and various other small
molecules (e.g. organic acids, amino acids)
may be present in the alcoholic extract. It is
usually necessary to remove those
components prior to carrying out a
carbohydrate analysis, for example, with
clarifying agents.
 If necessary before analysis of the
carbohydrates, residual alcohol (or other
organic solvents) can be removed.

26. Najaf farooq

27. HONEY

28. Synonyms: purified honey, Mel,
Clarified honey, Strained honey,
Madhu (Hindi)
Biological source: honey is a
sugary secretion deposited by
honeybees, Apis mellifera Linn.
Family: Apidae.
Habitat: Honey is produced mainly
in England, West indies, California,
Canada, Chile, Africa, Australia and
New zealand.

29. collection
1
• Nectar ( aqueous solution of sucrose 25%) is mixed
with salivary secretion containing enzyme invertase.
• It is hydrolyzed into invert sugar
2
• The worker bees deposit the content of the honey
sac in to prepared cell of honey comb.
• The filled cell is sealed by wax
3
• The honey is collected by drainage.
• To get purified honey, it is heated at 80C and
impurities are removed.

30. characteristics
Honey is:
 Thick.
 syrupy.
 Translucent liquid.
 The color is pale yellow or reddish brown .
 Has pleasant odor
 And sweet taste.

31. Honey bees filling the
honey comb

32. Chemical constituents
 Glucose (30-40%)
 Fructose (40-50%)
 Sucrose (0.1-10%)
 Dextrin
 Formic acid
 Volatile oil
 Pollen grains
 Traces of gums, vitamin, proteins and coloring
matter.

33. Uses
Laxative bactericidal
Sedative antiseptic
Cold, constipation, cough
Fever, sore throat and eye
Tb, ulcer, scurvy, excipients
Insomnia, wound, vermicide

34. Adulterants
 Honey is adulterated with cane sugar, corn
syrup and artificial invert sugar.
Chemical tests:
 Fiehe’s test for artificial invert sugar.
 Reduction of fehling’s solution.
 Limit test.

35. Nameera ahmed

36. starch

37. SYNONYM:
Amylum
BIOLOGICAL
SOURCE:
 Roots/tuber:
Potatoes
Arrowroot
 Cereal:
Corn
Wheat
Rice

38. GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCE:
Commercially starch is produced in:
 U.S.A
 Argentina
 India
 China
 Japan
OtherTropical & sub tropical countries.
PREARATION:
Various procedures are used to prepare a
particular starch.

39. PREPARATION
RICE
STARCH
WHEAT
STARCH
POTATO
STARCH
MAIZE
STARCH

40. PREPARATION OF MAIZE STARCH:
 Grains are softened by soaking in an
aq.soln of sulphurous acid(0.2%) at
50c for 2-3 days.
 Softened grain is crushed in rollers to
separate germs.
 The milky liquid is filtered through
sieves to remove cell-debris.
 Remaining protein may be separated
when the heavier starch deposits
first.
 In modified procedure, the traces of
proteins are separated by treating
starch with dilute alkali to dissolve
the former.
 Then starch is dried by flash dryers.

41. PREPARATION OF RICE STARCH:
 Broken rice(pieces)are softened
(macerating) in NaOH soln (Aq)(0.4%)
& then crushed.
 Ground material is mixed with
water.
 Starch is separated by standing.
 Washed.dried at 50-60C & powdered.

42. PREPARATION OF WHEAT
STARCH;
 Water(added) to the wheat flour
to prepare dough.
 Then kept for 1 hr.
 Dough(balls) are shaken with
water.
 Liquid containing starch falls below
from which it is separated by centrifuation,washed &
dried.

43. PREPARATION OF POTATO
STARCH:
 Potatoes(washed),crushed
(rasping machine) & cell-debris
is removed from the pulp by
rotary sieves after water(addition).
 The liquid contains starch,soluble
proteins,salts
& some cellular tissues.
 On standing,the starch separates more rapidly.
 Now,washed starch is dried.

44. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS:
Starches are generally mixtures of 2 types of polymers:
 Amylose
 Amylopectin
AMYLOSE:
• Linear component of starch
• Contains 1,4-alpha-glucosidic
bonds
• Molecular weight: less than 0.5
million
• Can form coils which will trap
iodine and turn blue

45. AMYLOPECTIN:
 Branched component of
starch
 Contains 1,4-alpha-
glucosidic as well as 1,6-
alpha-glucosidic bonds
 Molecular weight: 50-
500 million
 Limited coiling causes
purplish-red color when
iodine added

46. STARCH GRANULES:
 Made in the cytoplasm of
plant cells
 The granule swells when
heated in water
 Insoluble in water
 oval or round shape

47. USES:
Mild
astringent
Nutritive
Demulcent Protective
Absorbent
Anti dote Binder
Filler
Emollient

48. TESTS FOR IDENTIFICATION:
 Dissolve starch(1 g)in water(15 ml)by heating
on a water bath.a viscous transluscent jelly is
formed on cooling.
 Fehlings soln test is positive
 Solution of starch(1ml)forms a deep blue colour
on addition of iodine soln(1 drop).on warming
the colour disappears & re-appears on cooling.

49. Nida ashraf

50. SCIENTIFIC NAME:
Plantago ovata
Synonyms:
Psyllium seed
Flea seed
Plantain seed
Ishabgul Spogel seed
Biological Source:
Ispaghula consists of:
cleaned, dried, ripe seed of
Plantago psyrium Linn, or of
Plantago indica Linn. known as
Spanish or French Psyllium seed.

51. Family Name: Plantaginaceae
Cultivation and Collection:
 The plant is a stem less or sub-coalescent, soft, hairy annual
herb.
 Cultivated by spreading seeds in November in well drained
loamy soil.
 To the fields ammonium sulphate fertilizer is added and they
are irrigated at an interval of 8-10 days for about 8 times.
Habitat:
 P Psyllium Linn, is indigenous to the Mediterranean
region and west.Asia, presently cultivated in France.
 P. ovata is found in Punjab hills and other parts of north-
west India, Sind and Baluchistan.

52. Characters :
 The seeds of P. ovata are 2.0-3.3 mm in length
 1-16 mm in breadth
 dull, pinkish grey-brown; long to elliptical in
outline, boat shaped

53.  the dorsal surface is convex
 while the ventral surface is
concave with a deep furrow
 a hilum is present which is
covered by a thin
membrane and appears as
a red spot in the center.
 The outer surface is
smooth, hard and
translucent.
 seeds are odorless and
taste is bland but
mucilaginous.

54. Chemical Constituents:
The seeds contain:
 Hydro colloidal polysaccharide (mucilage) in the
outer seed coat (20-30%),
 fixed oils, tannin, aucubin glycoside, sugars, sterols
and protein.
 Also contains mucilage
 One fraction is soluble in cold water
 Ispaghula seeds hydrolysis xylose (46%).
 The other fraction in soluble in hot water forming a
highly viscous solution
 Ispaghula seeds hydrolysis xylose (80%).

55. Uses:Seeds are used as:
 Demulcent, Cooling, diuretic
 used in inflammatory conditions
 They are used to cure chronic dysentery and
 diarrhea.

56.  duodenal ulcer, gonorrhea, constipation and
piles.
 to assist the production of smooth solid faecal
mass.
 The seeds are used in febrile conditions and the
affections of kidneys, bladder and urethra.
 Prescribed in cough and cold.

57. • The crushed seeds made into
poultice are applied to
rheumatic
and glandular swellings.
 Recently anticancer
 Antitoxic
 Antiatherosclerosis

58. Other uses are:
 Hypocholesteremic
 Hypo-glycemic
 Hypotensive
 Cardiac depressant
 Cholinergic and cervical activities have been
reported.

59. RABIA KHALID
NADEEM

60. Bael

61. Synonyms
 Golden apple
 Bengal quince
 Fructus belae
 Bael fruit

62. Family
Rutaceae

63. Habitat

64. Collection
The unripe or half-ripe
fruits are collected
Epicarp is removed
Cut into transverse slices
or irregular pieces

65. Morphology
 shape : Sub-spherical
Epicarp :
 hard ,
 woody,
 smooth
 about 2mm thick,
 slightly granular

66. Endocarp
 reddish brown
 Pulpy
Mesocarp
 10-15 capsules ,
 each containing
several
 hairy
 Oblong,
 multicellular
 seeds surrounded by
reddish mucilage.

67. Odour :
 faint and aromatic
Taste :
 mucilaginous and
sweet.

68. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
CARBOHYDRATES
11-15%
VITAMIN A & C
TANNINS
20%
PROTEINS 1%
VOLATILE
OILS
ALKALOIDS

69. Galactose,
Arabinose,
D-galacturonic
acid
Rhamnose
Hydrolysis
2%wate
r-soluble
GUM

70. uses
Astringent
Digestive
Demulcent
Nutritive
Antipyretic
Cathartic

71. UROOBA IQBAL

72. PECTIN
 Group of polysaccharides found in
the primary cell walls of all seed
bearing plants & located in the
middle lamella.
 It was first isolated and described in
1825 by Henri Braconnot.
 Function in combination with
cellulose as an intercellular
cementing substance.
 One of the richest sources of pectin
is lemon or orange rind which
contains about 30% of this
polysaccharide.

73.  CHARACTERISTICS:
 Appearance : Coarse or fine-
powder
 Colour : Yellowish white
 Odour : Odourless
 Taste : Mucilaginous taste
•Solubility : Completely soluble in 20 parts of water. Dissolves
more swiftly in water, if previously moistened with sugar
syrup, alcohol, glycerol or if first mixed with 3 or more parts of
sucrose.
•pH: The optimal pH for pectin is between 2.8 and 4.7.
•Gel Formation: Pectin shows gel forming, thickening and
stabilizing properties if it is properly dissolved in water and if
it is stored in a cool and dry place.

74.  BIOLOGICAL SOURCES:
 Citrus limon (or Lemon) and Citrus
aurantium (family: Rutaceae), or from
apple pomace (family:
Rosaceae), Guavas, plums, quince, gooseberr
ies, etc.
GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES:
•Lemon & oranges (India, Africa & other tropical countries).
•Apple (Himalayas, California, many European countries & the countries located
in the Mediterranean climatic zone).

75. PREPARATION
step 1
• lemon peels are gently boiled with approx. 20x its wt. of fresh water maintained at 90ºC for a
duration of 30 min.
• pH of 3.5 to 4.0 must be maintained.
step 2
• After boiling, the peels are mildly squeezed to obtain the liquid portion which is then subjected
to centrifugation to result into a clear solution.
step 3
• From this resulting solution both proteins and starch contents are suitably removed by
enzymatic hydrolysis.
• The remaining solution is warmed to deactivate the added enzymes.
• The slightly colored solution is decolorized with activated carbon.
step 4
• Finally, the pectin in its purest form is obtained by precipitation with water-miscible organic
solvents (e.g., methanol, ethanol, acetone), washed with small quantities of solvent and dried in
a vacuum oven and stored in air-tight containers..

76.  CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS:
 partial methyl ester of a (1→4) linked D-galacturonate sequence
interrupted with (1–2) L-rhamnose residues. The side chain maker
neutral sugars are: D-galactose, L-arabinose, D-xylose, and L-fructose.
Schneider and Bock (1938) put forward the following probable
structure for pectin:

77. USES:
 Intestinal demulcent,
 Reduces blood cholesterol levels,
 Anti-diabetic,
 Used with kaolin in diarrhea.
 Treats indolent ulcers & deep wounds,
 As an emulsifying agent and gelling agent,
 In the preparation of jellies and similar food
products e.g., jams, sauces, ketchups.
 A combination of pectin and gelatin is used as an
encapsulating agent in various pharmaceutical
formulations.

78. CARBOHYDRATES ARE
ESSENTIAL FOR CARRYING OUT
PROCESSES OF LIFE.
CONCLUSION