carbohydrates containing drugs. fixed oils, lipids, waxes. properties, chemical constitution, uses, preparation, chemical tests.

1. Carbohydrate Containing Drugs
Indian Acacia
Tragacanth
Agar
Starch
Honey
Dr. Rakesh Barik

2. A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H)
and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water)
and thus with the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m may or may not be different
from n).
 Two major classes:- Simple sugars and Complex sugars
 Simple Sugars:
1) Monsaccharides (simple sugars)
2) Disaccharides.
3) Oligosaccharides.
CARBOHYDRATES

3.  They are sugar’s which cannot be further hydrolyzed into simple sugars.
 They contain 3 to 9 carbon atoms.
 They are classified as
 1)BIOSES:- which contain 2 carbons. C2H4O2 (e.g.)Glycolic aldehyde.
 2) TRIOSES:-which contain 3 carbons C3H6O3 (e.g.)Glyceraldehyde and
Dihydroxyacetone.
 3) TETROSES:-which contain 4 carbons C4H8O4 (e.g.) Erythrose, Threose.
 4) PENTOSES:- which contain 5 carbons. C5H10O5(e.g.) Arabinose, Xylose, Ribose and
Deoxyribose. Theyare obtained by hydrolysis of polysaccharides like
gemides, mucilage, gums eg. Hemicellulose, ribose, xylose.
MONOSACCHARIDES

4. • 5) Hexoxes:- They are obtained by hydrolysis of polysaccharides like starch,
inulin etc. eg. Aldoses:- glucose, mannose, galactose.. Ketoses:- fructose,
sorbose
• 6) Heptose:- Rarely found accumulated in plants eg. Glucoheptose and
mannoheptose.

5. Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides combine to form a disaccharide. Examples of carbohydrates
having two monomers include- Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose, etc.

6. Oligosaccharides
Carbohydrates formed by the condensation of 2-9 monomers are
called oligosaccharides. By this convention, trioses,
pentoses, hexoses are all oligosaccharides.
Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates that contain two or more
than two monosaccharides (2-10 units of monosaccharides).
Oligosaccharides may contain any sugar monomer, but
fructooligosaccharides (e.g., oligofructose) and
galactooligosaccharides are mostly researched.
Some oligosaccharides get absorbed in the small intestine
after getting hydrolsed, for example, maltotriose.

7. The classification depends on the number of sugar units they are
made up of. These include the following:
Trisaccharides: These types of oligosaccharides are made up of
three monosaccharides linked together. Raffinose is an example
of a trisaccharide which is composed of glucose, galactose and
fructose.
Tetrasaccharides: These are composed of four sugar units.
Sesamose, which is made up of four monosaccharides — 2 galactose
units, one unit of fructose and one glucose unit.
Pentasaccharides: They are composed of five monosaccharides.
Examples include verbascose, which is composed of three units of
galactose, one unit of fructose and one unit of glucose.
Hexasaccharides: These are made up of six sugar units.
Similarly, Heptasaccharides have seven sugar units,

8. Galactooligosaccharide
Galactooligosaccharides are made up of galactose molecules.
Example: Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs).
They are present in breast milk.
They are derived from lactose. 2′-fucosyllactose, i.e., a
trisaccharide composed of fucose, galactose, and glucose
accounts for 30% of all HMOs.

9. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are major classes of biomolecules. They are
long chains of carbohydrate molecules, composed of several
smaller monosaccharides.
These complex bio-macromolecules functions as an important
source of energy in animal cell and form a structural
component of a plant cell.
It can be a homopolysaccharide or a heteropolysaccharide
depending upon the type of the monosaccharides.
Polysaccharides can be a straight chain of monosaccharides
known as linear polysaccharides, or it can be branched known
as a branched polysaccharide.

10. Types Of Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are categorized into two types:
•Homopolysaccharides.
•Heteropolysaccharides.
Homopolysaccharides
A polysaccharide that contains the same type of monosaccharides
is known as a homopolysaccharide. Some of the important
homopolysaccharides are:
1.Glycogen: It is made up of a large chain of molecules. It is
found in animals and fungi.
2.Cellulose: The cell wall of the plants is made up of
cellulose. It comprises long chains of ꞵ-glycosides.
3.Starch: It is formed by the condensation of amylose and
amylopectin. It is found largely in plants, fruits, seeds, etc.
4.Inulin: It is made up of a number of fructofuranose molecules
linked together in chains. It is found in the tubers of dahlia,

11. Heteropolysaccharides
A polysaccharide that contains different types of
monosaccharides is known as a heteropolysaccharide.
Some of the important heteropolysaccharides are:
1.Hyaluronic Acid: It is made up of D-glucuronic acid
and N-acetyl-glucosamine. It is found in connective
tissues and skin.
2.Heparin: It is made up of D-glucuronic acid, L-
iduronic acid, N-sulfo-D-glucosamine and is largely
distributed in mast cells and blood.
3.Chondroitin-4-sulfate: Its component sugars are D-
glucuronic acid and N-acetyl-D-galactosamine-4-O-
sulfate. It is present in the cartilages.
4.Gamma globulin: N-acetyl-hexosamine, D-mannose, D-
galactose are the component sugars of this

12. • Pathological products consisting of calcium,
potassium and magnesium salts of complex
substances know as POLYURONIDES. On prolong
boiling with dilute acids they yeild mixture of sugars
and uronic acid.
i.e. gums + dil.acid (boiling)-- sugars +
uronic acid
GUMS

13. • They are physiological products related to gums
and they are generally sulfuric acid esters, the ester
group being a complex polysaccharide.
• Both gums and mucilage are decomposition
products of cellulose.
MUCILAGES

14. • Is a neutral methoxy ester of an aldobionic acid-
pectin acid, obtained as a water soluble compound
from the inner portion of the rind of citres fruits.
PECTIN

15. • Low molecular weight: Crystalline,soluble in water,
sweet taste.
eg : glucose, fructose, arabinose, sucrose etc.
• High molecular weight: amorphous, tasteless,
relatively insoluble.
eg : starch, cellulose, gums, pectins, insulin etc.
Carbohydrates Properties

16. • 1) They are the most abundant dietary source of
energy (4 cal /gm) for all organism.
• 2) Carbohydrates are precursors for many org.
compounds (fats, amino acids)
• 3) Carbohydrates (as glycoproteins and glycolipids)
participate in the structure of cell membrane and
cellular function such as cell growth adhesion and
fertilization.
CARBOHYDRATES FUNCTIONS:-

17. • 4) They are structural components of many organisms.
They include the fiber (cellulose) of plants.
• 5) Carbohydrates also serve as the storage form of
energy (glycogen) to meet the immediate energy
demands of the body.
• 6) Carbohydrates are utilized as raw materials for several
industries eg. Paper, plastic, textile and alcohol etc.

18. Identification Tests for carbohydrates.
1) Molish’s Test:
carbohydrates + α naphthol +H2SO4 purple color at the
junction between the two liquid layers
2)Reduction of Fehling's solution:
Sample + Fehling's solution (A+B) + Heat
3)Osazone formation:
brick red color ppt
Sample + phenylhydrazine HCl +sod. acetate + acetic acid
sugar to be identified by osazone crystal
4)Test for pentose:
Sample in test tube + equal vol of HCL containing a little
phloroglucinol red colour indicate pentose

19. 5) Keller-Kiliani test for deoxysugars.
Deoxysugar dissolve in acetic acid containing a trace of ferric
chloride. Transfer on surface of H2SO4. At the junction of the liquid a reddish brown
color is formed which then becomes blue.
6) Enzyme reaction
Certain carbohydrate reaction only brought by specific enzyme.
7) Resorcinol test for ketones
carbohydrate solution + crystal of resorcinol and warmed on a water bath with
equal volume of concentrated HCL. Rose color is produced if ketose is present.
Eg.fructose ,honey ,hydrolysed insulin.

20. • 8) Chromatography :- Chromatographic methods are particularly suited to the
examination of drug extracts, which may contain a number of carbohydrates often in
very small amounts.
• Not only are they applicable to carbohydrates originally present in the plant, but also
they may be used to study the products of hydrolysis of polysaccharide complexes
such as gums and mucilages.
• As standards for comparison many pure sugars, uronic acids and other sugar derivates
are commercially available.
• The carbohydrates spots obtained after separation are identified by their position and
by reagents. It may be useful to examine them in Ultraviolet light.

21. Indian Acacia
Synonyms – Indian Gum, Gum acacia, gum Arabic,
Babul (H).
Biological source – Acacia consists of the dried
gummy exudation from the stem and branches of
Acacia arabica (Lam.) Wild. belonging to family
Leguminoseae.
Geographical source – Punjab, Rajasthan, Western
Ghats.
Chemical constituents – It consists mainly of Arabin,
which is a complex mixture of calcium, magnesium and
potassium salts of Arabic acid. It also contains enzymes
oxidase and peroxidase.

22. Chemical
Tests for
Acacia
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION
A solution was prepared by dissolving 1 gm of
the gum in 5 ml water.
1. To 1ml of the solution 0.1 gm of borax was
added.
2. 1ml of the solution was diluted with 2ml of
water and a few drops of lead sub acetate
solution were added.
3. To 1ml of solution 4ml of water and dil. HCl
were added and boiled for a few minutes. To this
Fehling’s solution A and B were added.
A stiff translucent mass was formed.
A white bulky precipitate was formed (distinction
from agar).
A red ppt of cuprous oxide was formed due to the
presence of reducing sugars (distinction from
gelatin).

23. Uses
• Demulcent
• Emulsifying agent for fixed oils, volatile oils and
liquid paraffin
• Suspending agent in mixtures with resinous
substances.
• Binder in lozenges, pills and tablets.
Preparation
It is collected by making incisions on the trunk of the wild grown plants. The gum is
made free from bark and other foreign matter. It is then dried in the sun to get the
dried and partially bleached product.

24. Tragacanth
Synonyms – Gum Tragacanth, Gum Dragon
Biological source – Tragacanth consists of the dried
gummy exudation obtained from the stem Astragalus
gummifer Labill. and other species of Astragalus ,
belonging to family Leguminoseae.
Geographical source – Iran, Greece, Turkey, Syria,
India. North Syria and Iran supply Persian Tragacanth
while Smyrna port in Turkey supplies Smyrna
Tragacanth.
Chemical constituents – It consists of water soluble part
called tragacanthin (30%) and a water insoluble part
called bassorin (60 - 70%). Bassorin, containing methoxy
groups is responsible for the swelling and gelatinizing
property of the gum. Tragacanthin contains tragacanthic
acid and polysaccharides.

25. Chemical
Tests for
Tragacanth
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION
1. To the aqueous solution of Tragacanth
a few drops of 10% aqueous ferric
chloride solution were added and
boiled.
2. The powder and copper oxide were
dissolved in concentrated ammonium
hydroxide.
3. The powder was warmed with sodium
hydroxide solution.
4. To the powder strong iodine solution
was added.
Deep yellow ppt was obtained.
A stringy ppt was formed.
Canary yellow colour was
formed (distinction from
acacia).
Green colour was obtained.

26. Uses
• Demulcent
• Emollient in cosmetics.
• Thickening, emulsifying and a suspending agent.
• Because of its swelling properties it is used as bulk
laxative and in confectionaries.
• Binder in tablets and as excipient in pills.
• In lotions, spermicidal jellies and as a stabilizer in
ice creams.
Collection and Preparation
Most of the gum is obtained from the Persian source. It is formed as a result of transformation of the cells
of pith and medullary rays into gummy substance. Incisions are made on the stem. The fluid coming out is
collected after drying. It is found in irregular flakes with ribbon lie appearance depending on the incisions
made on the plant. Collection is done from April to November every year.

27. Agar
Synonyms – Agar-agar, vegetable gelatin, Japanese
Isinglass.
Biological source – Agar consists of the bleached and
dried gelatinous substance obtained by concentrating a
decoction made from the algae Gelidium amansii of
family Gelidaceae and several other species of red algae.
Geographical source – India, Japan, Australia, New
Zealand, USA.
Chemical constituents – It consists of two
polysaccharides named Agarose (responsible for gel
strength) and Agaropectin (responsible for viscosity). It
also contains traces of proteins.

28. Collection and Preparation:
In the coastal area of Japan, the algae are cultivated in special areas. The
poles are planted in the sea to form supports for the development of algae.
The poles are withdrawn from time to time and the algae are stripped off in
the months from May to October. The sea weeds are scrapped from the
bamboos. The algae are dried, beaten and shaken to remove any earthy
material adhering to it like shells, sand, etc.
• It is then bleached by watering and drying in the sun. The algae are then
boiled with acidulated water for several hours. A mucilaginous decoction is
formed, which is filtered while hot through a linen cloth. On cooling, a jelly
is produced which is cut into bars and subsequently strips are produced. The
manufacturing of agar takes place only in winter season. The moisture is
removed by freezing, thawing and drying at about 35 ° C.
• In America, the modern method of deep- freezing is being utilized.

29. EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION
1. 1 gm powder is boiled in 10 ml water and cooled
to room temperature.
2. Few drops of ruthenium red solution was added
to the powder and observed under a microscope.
3. To 1 % solution of agar, 2ml of HCl was added and
heated for 30 minutes. This was divided into two
parts:
To the first part 3 ml of 10% KOH solution was
added followed by 2ml each of Fehling’s solution A
and B and heated.
To the second part barium chloride solution was
added.
4. The powder was warmed with sodium hydroxide
solution.
5. To the powder 1 or 2 drops of iodine solution were
added.
A stiff jelly is formed.
The powder takes up pink or red colour due to the
presence of mucilage (distinction from Acacia and
Tragacanth).
A brick red ppt is formed due to the presence of
reducing sugars (distinction from gelatin).
A white ppt is obtained (distinction from Acacia and
Tragacanth).
.Canary yellow colour is formed (distinction from
Acacia).
The powder takes up crimson to brown colour
(distinction from Acacia)
Chemical Tests for Agar

30. Uses
• It is used to prepare culture media in microbiological
studies.
• It is used as bulk laxative
• It is used as an emulsifying agent.
• It is used in the preparation of jellies and
confectionaries.
• It is used as a stabilizer in many food products.

31. Starch
Synonym - Amylum
Biological source – Starch consists of polysaccharide granules obtained from the
following sources:
Grains of Zea mays Linn., family Gramineae.
Grains of Oryza sativa Linn., family Gramineae.
Grains of Triticum aestivum Linn., family Gramineae.
Tubers of Solanum tuberosum Linn, family Solanaceae.
Geographical source – Most of the tropical and sub tropical countries.
Chemical constituents – Starch contains two polysaccharides: Amylose (20%),which is
water soluble part and Amylopectin (80%) which is water insoluble part and responsible
for the gelling property.

32. • Depending upon the raw material to be used for
processing or type of the starch to be produced
different process are used for the commercial
mfg. of starch.
PREPARATION :-

33. Potato starch :-
• The potatoes are washed to remove the earthy matter.
They are crushed or cut and converted into a slurry
• Slurry is filtered to remove the cellular matter.
• As potatoes do not contain gluten they are very easy to
process further.
• After filtration, the milky slurry containing starch is
purified by centrifugation and washing.
• Then it is dried and sent to the market.
PREPARATION :-

34. Rice Starch :-
• The broken species of rice resulted during the polishing are
used for processing.
• The pieces of rice are soaked in water with dilute sod.
Hydroxide soln.{.5%}, which causes softening and dissolution
of the gluten.
• After this, the soaked rice pieces are crushed and starch
prepared as described under potato starch.
PREPARATION :-

35. MaizeStarch[CornStarch]:-
• Maize grains are wash thoroughly with water to remove the
adhered organic matter after which they are soften by keeping in
warm water for 2-3 days.
• Sufficient sulphur dioxide is passed to the medium to prevent
fermentation.
• The swollen kernels are passed through attrition mill to break the
grains so as to separate endosperm and outermost coating of
grains.
• At this point special attention is given to separate the germ
{Embryo}.

36. • This is effected by addition of water where in
germs float and are separated.
• The water which is used to soften the grains
dissolves most of the minerals, soluble proteins
and carbohydrates from the grains.
• Water being rich in all this contents is used as a
culture medium for the production of antibiotics
like penicillin.

37. • The separated germs are used to prepare the germ
oil by expression method known as corn oil.
• The oil contains fatty acids like inoleic and
linoleic acids and vit E.
• It is used commercially for preparing soap.
• The starchy material contains gluten of this is
removed by simple sieving and then by washing.

38. • Starch being heavier, settles at the bottom and is
followed by gluten.
• Several treatments with cold water wash the
starch effectively, which is then centrifuge or
filter-pressed and finally, dried in flash dryers on
a moving belt dryer

39. Wheatstarch:-
• Wheat flour is converted into dough and kept for a
while
• The gluten in the dough swells and the masses are
taken to grooved rollers wherein water is poured over
them with constant shaking.
• The starchy liquid coming out of the rollers processed
conveniently to take out starch which is then dried
and packed suitably.

40. • 1. Rice starch: Simple (polyhedral), 2-12 micron
dia. or compound (ovoid-egg shaped) 12-30x7-12
µ. 2-150 components
Microscopic characters

41. • 2.wheat starch: simple lenticular ( shape like biconvex lens)
granule, circular or oval in shape, 5-50µ dia., hilum ( point in
a starch granule around which the layers of starch are
deposited) – centre & concentric faintly marked striations. 2-
4 components
Microscopic characters

42. • 3. maize starch: polyhedral or rounded granule, 5-
31 dia., with distinct cavity in the centre
Microscopic characters

43. • 4. potato starch: simple granule – sub spherical, ovoid, 30-
100 µ, hilum near narrower end with marked concentric
striation (number of tiny parallel grooves, scratches)
Microscopic characters

44. EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION
1. I gm of starch powder is taken in a
test tube and 5 ml of water is added.
It is then boiled.
1. To the above jelly, few drops of
iodine solution are added.
A translucent viscous
jelly like mass is
formed.
Blue colour change is
observed.
Chemical Tests for Starch

45. Uses
• It is used as a nutritive, demulcent and as an absorbent.
• It is used as a diluents and disintegrating agent in tablets
and pills.
• It is used as a starting material for the commercial
manufacture of liquid glucose, dextrose and dextrin.

46. Honey
Synonym - Madhu
Biological source – It is the sugar secretion deposited in the
combs / hives of the honey bee, Apis mellifera, belonging to
family, Apidae.
Geographical source – India, Africa, Australia, New Zealand.
Chemical constituents – Honey is concentrated aqueous
solution of 35% glucose, 45% fructose and 2% sucrose.
Besides, it is found to contain small amounts of essential oil,
beeswax, pollen grains, formic acid, acetic acid, succinic acid,
maltose, dextrin, colouring pigments, vitamins and an
admixture of enzymes e.g; diastase, invertase and inulase.

47. Preparation:-
• The nectar of the flower is a watery
solution containing 25% sucrose and 75%
water.
• The worker bee sucks this nectar through
its hollow tube of mouth (proboscis) and
deposits in honey-sac located in abdomen.
• The enzyme invertase present in saliva of
the bee converts nectar into invert sugar,
which is partially utilized by the bee,
• And the next is deposited into honey comb.

48. • Honey comb is smoked to remove the bees and
honey is obtained by applying the pressure to it or
allowing it to drain naturally.
• The honey of commerce is heated to 80oC and
allowed to stand.
• The impurities which float over the surface are
skimmed off and liquid diluted with water to
produce honey of 1.35 density.
• Natural honey has the density of 1.47.
Preparation:-

49. • Many a time, honey is extracted from the comb by
centrifugation.
• It must be free from foreign substances.
• Honey is liable to fermentation, unless it is suitable
processed.
• Honey is heated to 80oC before it is sent to the
market, so as to avoid fermentation.
• It should be cooled rapidly or else it darkens in color
on keeping.
• If necessary (and if not prepared by centrifugation
method), honey is required to be filtered through wet
cloth or flannel.

50. EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION
Fehling’s Solution Test: To an aqueous solution of
honey (2 ml) Fehling‘s solutions A and B are added
and the reaction mixture is heated on a steam bath
for 5–10 min.
Brick red coloured ppt is produced
Fiehe’s Test for Artificial Invert Sugar: Honey (2 ml) is
shaken with petroleum or solvent ether (2 ml) for 5–10 min.
The upper ethereal layer is separated and evaporated in a
china dish. 1% solution of resorcinol in hydrochloric acid (1
ml) is added.
Aniline Chloride Test : Take 5 ml. of honey in a porcelain dish. Add
Aniline Chloride solution (3 ml of Aniline and 7 ml. Of 1:3 HCl) and
stir well.
Transient red colour is formed (in artificial honey the
colour persists for sometimes.
Orange red colour indicates presence of sugar.

51. Uses
• It is used as a nutritive and demulcent.
• It is used as a starting material for the commercial
manufacture of liquid glucose, dextrose and
dextrin.