This document provides information about carbohydrates including their history, occurrence, classification, isolation, properties, identification tests, pharmaceutical importance, and pharmacognostic study of individual carbohydrate-containing drugs. It discusses the various classes of carbohydrates such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Examples are provided for each class. The document also outlines methods for extracting different types of carbohydrates from plant materials and identifying carbohydrates using common chemical tests. The pharmaceutical uses and importance of some specific carbohydrates are highlighted. Individual drug monographs on pectin, guar gum, agar, acacia, honey, isapgol, and tragacanth are also included which detail
Carbohydrates are generally classified into monosaccharides (simple sugars), oligosaccharides (containing few sugar units) and polysaccharides (containing many sugar units).
Monosaccharides are sugar molecules containing short chain of carbon atoms, one aldehydic or ketonic group and hydroxyl groups attached to remaining Carbon atoms.
Oligosaccharides are formed by polymerisation of monosaccharide molecules by elimination of water molecules.
Polysaccharides are high molecular weight substances composed of large number of moosaccharide units combined to form one large polymer molecule. They may be straight chain or branched chain polymers.
This ppt explains the properties of monosaccharides, polysaccharides. the properties like mutarotation, reduction, optical activity, caramerlization, osazone is given in the ppt. Also the determination of ring size of the monosaccharide is explained/
This presentation is made for F.Y.Bsc. Students.
The presentation includes the General Properties of Carbohydrate and the classification of carbohydrates.
Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. These can be activated by enzyme hydrolysis, which causes the sugar part to be broken off, making the chemical available for use. Many such plant glycosides are used as medications. In animals and humans, poisons are often bound to sugar molecules as part of their elimination from the body.A glycoside is a molecule consisting of a sugar and a non-sugar group, called an aglycone. The sugar group is known as the glycone and can consist of a single sugar group or several sugar groups. The sugars is in its cyclic form and is covalently attached to the aglycon through the hydroxyl group of the hemiactal function.
There are many different kinds of aglycones. It can be a terpene, a flavonoid, a coumarin or practically any other natural occurring product (se figure 1)
The glycone can be attached to the aglycon in many different ways. The most common bridging atom is oxygen (O-glycoside), but it can also be sulphur (S-glycoside), nitrogen (N-glycoside) or carbon (C-glycoside). In general, one distinguishes between α-Glycosides and β-glycosides, depending on the configuration of the hemiactal hydroxyl group. The majority of the naturally occurring glycosides are β-glycosidesGenerally glycosides are more polar than the aglycones and as a result glycoside formation usually increases water solubility. This may allow the producing organism to transport and store the glycoside more efficiently
Many biologically active compounds are glycosides. The pharmacological effects are largely determined by the structure of the aglycone.
Glycosides comprise several important classes of compounds such as hormones, sweeteners, alkaloids, flavonoids and antibiotics
Carbohydrates are generally classified into monosaccharides (simple sugars), oligosaccharides (containing few sugar units) and polysaccharides (containing many sugar units).
Monosaccharides are sugar molecules containing short chain of carbon atoms, one aldehydic or ketonic group and hydroxyl groups attached to remaining Carbon atoms.
Oligosaccharides are formed by polymerisation of monosaccharide molecules by elimination of water molecules.
Polysaccharides are high molecular weight substances composed of large number of moosaccharide units combined to form one large polymer molecule. They may be straight chain or branched chain polymers.
This ppt explains the properties of monosaccharides, polysaccharides. the properties like mutarotation, reduction, optical activity, caramerlization, osazone is given in the ppt. Also the determination of ring size of the monosaccharide is explained/
This presentation is made for F.Y.Bsc. Students.
The presentation includes the General Properties of Carbohydrate and the classification of carbohydrates.
Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. These can be activated by enzyme hydrolysis, which causes the sugar part to be broken off, making the chemical available for use. Many such plant glycosides are used as medications. In animals and humans, poisons are often bound to sugar molecules as part of their elimination from the body.A glycoside is a molecule consisting of a sugar and a non-sugar group, called an aglycone. The sugar group is known as the glycone and can consist of a single sugar group or several sugar groups. The sugars is in its cyclic form and is covalently attached to the aglycon through the hydroxyl group of the hemiactal function.
There are many different kinds of aglycones. It can be a terpene, a flavonoid, a coumarin or practically any other natural occurring product (se figure 1)
The glycone can be attached to the aglycon in many different ways. The most common bridging atom is oxygen (O-glycoside), but it can also be sulphur (S-glycoside), nitrogen (N-glycoside) or carbon (C-glycoside). In general, one distinguishes between α-Glycosides and β-glycosides, depending on the configuration of the hemiactal hydroxyl group. The majority of the naturally occurring glycosides are β-glycosidesGenerally glycosides are more polar than the aglycones and as a result glycoside formation usually increases water solubility. This may allow the producing organism to transport and store the glycoside more efficiently
Many biologically active compounds are glycosides. The pharmacological effects are largely determined by the structure of the aglycone.
Glycosides comprise several important classes of compounds such as hormones, sweeteners, alkaloids, flavonoids and antibiotics
Cyanogenic glycoside which on hydrolysis gives benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid. examples of this glycosides are bitter almond and wild cherry bark. in this slides bitter almond is described in detail.
THIS SLIDESHARE CONTAINS THE DESCRIPTION RELATED TO TOPIC LIPIDS FROM PHARMACOGNOSY OF CLASS B.PHARM 4TH SEM. IT IS PREPARED BY SAGAR DHANDAY STUDENT OF B.PHARM. 2ND YEAR (2019 BATCH) IPS, KUK FOR THE EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES.
Cyanogenic glycoside which on hydrolysis gives benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid. examples of this glycosides are bitter almond and wild cherry bark. in this slides bitter almond is described in detail.
THIS SLIDESHARE CONTAINS THE DESCRIPTION RELATED TO TOPIC LIPIDS FROM PHARMACOGNOSY OF CLASS B.PHARM 4TH SEM. IT IS PREPARED BY SAGAR DHANDAY STUDENT OF B.PHARM. 2ND YEAR (2019 BATCH) IPS, KUK FOR THE EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES.
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Formulation and Evaluation of Solid dispersion for Dissolution Enhancement of...Jing Zang
Nifedipine, a calcium channel blocker antihypertensive drug, is a poorly water soluble drug and belongs to BCS class II. The objective of the research work was to formulate and optimize solid dispersions (SDs) of a poorly water soluble drug, nifedipine, with sodium starch glycollate, croscarmellose sodium, eudragit E-100. Solid dispersions were prepared by solvent evaporation techniques in different weight ratios of polymers. The results indicated that homogeneous or heterogeneous conditions during the preparation methods employed governed the internal structures of the polymer matrices while retaining the drug in an amorphous form. The physical mixtures and solid dispersions were subjected to drug content and dissolution test. The best formulation, nifedipine with croscarmellose sodium in 1:7 ratio, among all was further adsorbed on neusilin US2 to form ternary mixture. The increased dissolution was achieved by more than 70percent and 30percent comparatively to the nifedipine API and marketed product respectively. The tablet dosage form prepared from ternary mixture was stable at stressed conditions 40±2°C and 75±5% RH. The release kinetics of drug from formulation and marketed product follows peppas model. The similar factor f2 was within limit for the product at stressed conditions with the product at room temperature at the same time.
Comparative Phytochemical and Physicochemical Study of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum)...BRNSS Publication Hub
Curcuma longa belongs to family and ocimum sanctum belongs to family lamiaceae. The phytochemical and physicochemical analysis was carried out for tulsi and haldi and haldi and a comparative study were done. Determination of total ash, acid insoluble, water soluble ash of tulsi and haldi were carried out by using standard procedure. The phytochemical screening has been done for different extract it revealed the presence of alkaloid, flavanoid, tannin, carbohydrate. Phytochemical and physicochemical parameters of Tulsi and haldi were stablished for their identification. The present study is focused on phytochemical and physicochemical study on haldi and tulsi. The qualitative physicochemical analysis was performed for the detection of secondary metabolites (viz. alkaloid, protein, tannin, saponin etc.).
Method Development, Validation and Forced Degradation Studies of Dapagliflozi...ijtsrd
A simple, sensitive, robust, precise, and efficient RP HPLC approach for the simultaneous determination of Dapagliflozin and Pioglitazone Hydrochloride in Synthetic Mixture. As per ICH Q2 R1 guidelines, the final chromatographic conditions were Optimized with a mobile phase ratio of 25 75 v v in ACN Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate Buffer pH 4 was adjusted by adding OPA at a flow rate of 1 mL min, column temperature of 30 °C, injection volume of 20 µL, Kromstar Vertex C18 analytical column, and UV detection at 228 nm wavelength. Dapagliflozin and Pioglitazone Hydrochloride reported retention times of 3 min and 6.5 min, respectively. Validation of a method was found to be linear in the range of 2 10 µg ml for Dapagliflozin and 3–15 µg mL for Pioglitazone Hydrochloride. The Recovery for Dapagliflozin was discovered to be 98.52 99.90 , while for Pioglitazone Hydrochloride, it was found to be 99.67 99.94 . The Precision results for both drugs were within the limits while expressed Intraday and Interday. For Dapagliflozin, the LOD and LOQ were reported to be 0.041 µg mL and 0.13 µg mL, respectively, and for Pioglitazone Hydrochloride, 0.105 µg mL and 0.32 µg mL. As per ICH Q1A R2 guidelines, the synthetic mixture was subjected to acid, base, oxidation, thermal, and photolysis stress conditions. Mr. Tarang Patel | Ronak Parikh "Method Development, Validation and Forced Degradation Studies of Dapagliflozin and Pioglitazone Hydrochlorides in Synthetic Mixtures by RP-HPLC" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-6 , October 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd52165.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/pharmacy/analytical-chemistry/52165/method-development-validation-and-forced-degradation-studies-of-dapagliflozin-and-pioglitazone-hydrochlorides-in-synthetic-mixtures-by-rphplc/mr-tarang-patel
This presentation helps to know about the particular media and churna prepared and its anti-microbial activity. This also provides results obtained after testing.
In the present study we monitor the eff ect of copper-contaminated culture media on development and active compound biosynthesis of two Rhodotorula mucilaginosa strains, assigned as R1 and R2. The media was prepared in aqueous extracts of Asclepias syriaca stems and diff erent copper ions concentrations were added. The data reveals that the presence of 10 mg/ L Cu2+ for the Rhodotorula mucilaginosa strain-1 (R1) and 50 mg/ L Cu2+ for the Rhodotorula mucilaginosa strain-2 (R2) strain fermentation increases the biomass yield (24.7 g and 14.8 g wet biomass/ L culture medium, respectively) and biosynthesis of carotenoid pigments (approximately 1.4 μg/ g dry biomass) compared with references. The chelating properties of polyphenol compounds from aqueous extracts of Asclepias syriaca
stems was confi rmed by detection of 17.9 mg/ L Cu2+ in extracts with 100 mg/ L Cu2+ added, after 24 hours at 4°
C. In the residual culture media, we have determines that the Cu2+ concentrations decreased at 14.0 mg/L for Rhodotorula mucilaginosa strain-1 (R1) and 13.8 mg/
L for Rhodotorula mucilaginosa strain-2 (R2) strain fermentation, respectively, which means that the copper was trapped by the yeasts cells. Likewise, the polyphenols are digested and used as a carbon source. These results bring a significant contribution to the possibility of yeast fermentations in a low cost-vegetal polyphenol and copper ions system.
Biochemical effect of Aqueous Carica papaya Seed and Leaf Extracts on Serum B...iosrjce
The cost of administering modern anti diabetic drugs is usually beyond the reach of most people in
the low income group especially those in the developing world where the disease is on the increase. This has led
to the current shift to the use of preparations from various parts of plants because of the current increase in the
knowledge of their toxicity, side effects, active constituents and doses. This study was conducted to compare the
effects of the aqueous Carica papaya seed and leaf extracts on serum biochemistry of alloxan induced diabetic
rats especially glucose level. Male Wister rats weighing 150-200g were induced with single freshly prepared
alloxan monohydrate (150 mg/kg body weight).Diabetes was confirmed after seven days in alloxan-induced rats
showing fasting blood glucose levels ≥ 200mg/dl. The diabetic rats were randomly allocated into three
experimental groups which received Seed extract, leaf extract or normal saline depending on the group. The
extracts were administered orally for twenty-eight days after which the animals were sacrificed and blood
samples were collected for Biochemical analyses. The results showed that both extracts have significant
hypoglycaemic, hepatoprotective and nephroprotective effects although extract of the seed proved to be more
potent than that of the leaf
2. CARBOHYDRATES
PRESENTRD BY
INAMPUDI SHERLY
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF:
MR. KARTHIKEYAN, M.Pharm (Ph.D),
ASST. PROFESSOR
Vignan pharmacy college
Approved by AICTE&PCI New Delhi,affliliated to JNTU Kakinada
Vadlamudi-522213,Guntur,A.P
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 2
3. Contents:
• History of carbohydrates.
• Occurrence of carbohydrates.
• Classification of carbohydrates.
• Isolation of carbohydrates.
• Physical and chemical properties of carbohydrates.
• Identification tests for carbohydrates.
• Pharmaceutical importance of carbohydrates.
• Pharmacognostic study of individual drugs.
3 DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy
4. History:
Formerly, carbohydrates were defined as a group of
compounds composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.
The later 2elements are in the same proportion as in water
and were expressed by a formula Cn(H₂O)n.
The word carbohydrates can be traced back to Germans, who
called them “Kohlenhydrates”. It was then termed
Carbohydrates in English.
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 4
5. The definition is not valid as it was misleading few
compounds like Acetic acid (C₂H₄O₂), lactic acid (C₃H₆O₃)
which are not carbohydrates.
To accommodate a wide variety of compounds, the
carbohydrates are now-a-days broadly defined as
polyhydroxy Aldehydes or Ketones.
Carbohydrates are much abundant in plants, rather than in
animals.
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 5
6. Occurrence of carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are widely distributed in plants and animals
and also found in green plants by the process of
Photosynthesis.
• This process occurs with the presence of Chlorophyll
Pigment.
sunlight
6CO₂ +6H₂ O C₆ H ₁₂ O₆ + 6O₂
chlorophyll
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 6
7. • These carbohydrates utilized by the animals in the form of
food.
• Well known carbohydrates are Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) , Sugar
(C ₁₂ H₂₂O₁₁),Starch (C ₆ H₁₀O ₅)&Cellulose (C ₆ H₁₀O ₅)n
used by human beings & animals.
• Animals can synthesize Carbohydrates from Fat& protein.
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 7
12. POLYSACCHARIDES (C6H10O5)n:
• On hydrolysis it produce Indefinite no. of Monosaccharide's
molecules called as Glycans.
• Common Polysaccharides of biological significance are Starch ,
Glycogen(Animal starch),Cellulose , Inulin.
• Starch-Glucose units joined by α-1,4& α-1,6 linkages.
Cellulose-Glucose units joined by β -1,4 linkages.
• Important derivatives-Gums & Mucilage's
• Gums- consists of Ca , K & Mg salts of complex substances called
Polyuronides. on prolonged boiling with dilute acids they yields
sugar and uronic acids. Mucilage's – Sulphuric acid esters.
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 12
14. Extraction of monosaccharide's
Fresh plant material
Homogenized with 4parts of dis.water for 15 min
filtration
Conc. In vaccum to 1/10th of its volume
Allowed to crystallize in refrigerator
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 14
15. Extraction of oligosaccharides
Fresh plant material
Homogenized with 6-8 parts of hot water at 90ᵒ c for 15min
Filter the solution through celite while hot
Conc. in vaccum to 1/10th of its volume
Allowed to crystallize in refrigerator
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 15
16. Extraction of polysaccharides
Plant material
Extraction with ethanol (remove low Mol.wt constituents)
Extract with Ethanol ; followed by Ether : Benzene(1:1)
Filter & collect residue
Lipids
Extract with 1%Nacl solution(or)Boiling water
Filter & collect residue
Neutral H₂O soluble
polysaccharides
Extract with 0.5%Ammonium Oxalate Solution
Filter & collect residue
Pectin
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 16
17. Extract with 1%Nacl at 70 ⁰ C for 1hr , Filter & collect residue
Lignin
Extract with 7-12%NaoH under N₂ at room temp for 24hr ,filter
Filtrate
Acidification
Hemi cellulose
To achieve complete extraction(7-12%NaoH)
Should repeat 2times
Purify by precipitating in Ethanol
Residue
Wash &Dry
Pure Cellulose
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 17
18. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
OF CARBOHYDRATES
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 18
19. Monosaccharides:
• Crystalline compounds.
• Soluble in water.
• Sweet to taste .
• Needs digestion in-order to be absorbed in blood stream.
Disaccharides:
• Crystalline compounds.
• Soluble in water
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy
19
20. • Sweet to taste.
• Must be digested to monosaccharide's before absorbed and used for
energy.
Polysaccharides:
• Amorphous compounds.
• Not Soluble in water.
• Not Sweet to taste.
• They form colloidal suspensions instead of solution & must be
digested before being absorbed.
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy
20
25. RESORCINOL TEST FOR KETONES
Crystal of Resorcinol
Sugar solution
Equal Volumes of
Conc.Hcl
Rose Color
(Due to Ketone)
+
+
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 25
26. Sugar solution
Equal Volume of Hcl
containing little
Phloroglucinol
Red Color
TEST FOR PENTOSES
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 26
27. CHROMATOGRAPHY
R.F values of different sugar ranges between
0.09-0.37
Sugars are subjected to Thin layer (or) Paper
Chromatography
Unknown samples are spotted along with
Authentic Sugars
The colored spots are identified by Aniline -
Hydrogen Phthalate which is a Detecting Agent
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 27
35. GUAR GUM
Synonym Biological
source
& Family
Chemical
constituents
Uses
•Guar flour
•Jaguar gum
Cyamopsis
Tetragonolobus
Linn
Family-
Leguminosae
Water soluble
fraction-85% of gum
(Guaran)
•Protective colloid
•Binder &
disintegrant
•Bulk laxative
•Peptic ulcer
therapy
•Emulsifying
agent
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy
35
36. AGAR
synonym Biological
source&
Family
Chemical
constituents
uses Substituent
and
adulterants
•Agar-Agar
•Vegetable
gelatin.
Gelidium
amansii.
Family-
Gelidaceae
Agarose-gel
strength of agar.
Agaropectin-viscosity
of agar
solution.
•Laxative
•Good
emulsifying
agent
•Preparation
of jellies
•Preparation
of
Suppositorie
s& pessaries
•Danish agar
•Indian agar
Agarose
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy
36
46. COMPOUNDS AGAR GUAR GUM ACACIA
COLOUR Yellowish
grey(or)white
Colourless
(or)pale yellowish
Tears-cream
brown to red .
Powder-light
brown
ODOUR odourless characteristic odourless
TASTE mucilaginous gummy Bland
& mucilaginous
SHAPE Stripes, sheets,
flakes
Irregular brown
tears
SIZE Sheets(45-
60cmlong)
Stripes(4mm w)
varying
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 46
47. HONEY ISABGOL PECTIN STERCULIA
pale yellow to
yellowish brown
pinkish grey to
brown
cream
(or)yellowish
powder
light pink to very
dark
characteristic,
pleasant
odourless vinegar
sweet and faintly
acidic
mucilaginous mucilaginous
Ovate cymbiform Irregular masses
10-35mmlength
1-1.75mm width
DATE:2-8-2014 Dept : pharmacognosy 47
48. Carbohydrates are the 1⁰ Metabolites which are stored in the form of
Starch grains ,after 1⁰ utilization by the plant itself it is considered to
be an Important Precursor for Biosynthesis of various 2⁰
Metabolites which are Medicinally Important.
Later on scientific evaluation leads to usage of carbohydrates as
pharmaceutical aid such as Binders, Diluents , Lubricants &
Emulsifying agent.
Now-a-days the synthetic chemicals are incompatible with various
pharmaceutical formulations which are replaced by natural agents
like carbohydrates .
Here I conclude evaluation of different natural agents which are
applicable for the preparation of various pharmaceutical dosage
forms in necessary for the future. 48