The document discusses biomolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. It begins by defining carbohydrates and classifying them into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides based on their structure. Glucose and fructose are discussed as examples of monosaccharides that exist in open-chain and cyclic forms. Disaccharides such as sucrose and maltose are formed from glycosidic linkages between two monosaccharides. Sucrose yields glucose and fructose while maltose yields two glucose molecules.
- Plants convert 100 metric tons of CO2 into carbohydrates each year through photosynthesis.
- Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules and serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and encoding biologic information through oligosaccharide chains.
- Monosaccharides can exist as cyclic or linear structures and take on different configurations that impact their chemical and physical properties. Common techniques like mutarotation, osazone formation, and oxidation reactions are used to characterize carbohydrates.
Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides joined by an O-glycosidic linkage. The main disaccharides discussed are:
1) Sucrose (table sugar), which hydrolyzes into glucose and fructose. Inversion of sucrose produces invert sugar, which is sweeter.
2) Maltose, formed from two glucose molecules and is a reducing sugar. It is found in germinating seeds.
3) Lactose is the sugar in milk, formed from glucose and galactose. It is hydrolyzed by lactase in the small intestine.
- Carbohydrates provide energy and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is a primary carbohydrate that our bodies use for energy.
- Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharide units.
- Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides that provide energy storage or structural support
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy compounds that contain a carbonyl group and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The three main types are monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose exist as both open-chain and ring forms, with the ring forms being more stable. Carbohydrates undergo reactions like isomerization, oxidation, reduction, and acetal formation involving their carbonyl groups. They can exist in several isomeric forms differing in stereoconfiguration and anomeric form.
Biochemistry of carbohydrates_prepared_by_Drx_Raju_Yadav_2021RajYadav238
Carbohydrates, or carbs, are sugar molecules. Along with proteins and fats, carbohydrates are one of three main nutrients found in foods and drinks. Your body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose. Glucose, or blood sugar, is the main source of energy for your body's cells, tissues, and organs
Carbohydrates are generally classified into monosaccharides (simple sugars), oligosaccharides (containing few sugar units) and polysaccharides (containing many sugar units).
Monosaccharides are sugar molecules containing short chain of carbon atoms, one aldehydic or ketonic group and hydroxyl groups attached to remaining Carbon atoms.
Oligosaccharides are formed by polymerisation of monosaccharide molecules by elimination of water molecules.
Polysaccharides are high molecular weight substances composed of large number of moosaccharide units combined to form one large polymer molecule. They may be straight chain or branched chain polymers.
- Plants convert 100 metric tons of CO2 into carbohydrates each year through photosynthesis.
- Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules and serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and encoding biologic information through oligosaccharide chains.
- Monosaccharides can exist as cyclic or linear structures and take on different configurations that impact their chemical and physical properties. Common techniques like mutarotation, osazone formation, and oxidation reactions are used to characterize carbohydrates.
Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides joined by an O-glycosidic linkage. The main disaccharides discussed are:
1) Sucrose (table sugar), which hydrolyzes into glucose and fructose. Inversion of sucrose produces invert sugar, which is sweeter.
2) Maltose, formed from two glucose molecules and is a reducing sugar. It is found in germinating seeds.
3) Lactose is the sugar in milk, formed from glucose and galactose. It is hydrolyzed by lactase in the small intestine.
- Carbohydrates provide energy and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is a primary carbohydrate that our bodies use for energy.
- Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharide units.
- Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides that provide energy storage or structural support
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy compounds that contain a carbonyl group and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The three main types are monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose exist as both open-chain and ring forms, with the ring forms being more stable. Carbohydrates undergo reactions like isomerization, oxidation, reduction, and acetal formation involving their carbonyl groups. They can exist in several isomeric forms differing in stereoconfiguration and anomeric form.
Biochemistry of carbohydrates_prepared_by_Drx_Raju_Yadav_2021RajYadav238
Carbohydrates, or carbs, are sugar molecules. Along with proteins and fats, carbohydrates are one of three main nutrients found in foods and drinks. Your body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose. Glucose, or blood sugar, is the main source of energy for your body's cells, tissues, and organs
Carbohydrates are generally classified into monosaccharides (simple sugars), oligosaccharides (containing few sugar units) and polysaccharides (containing many sugar units).
Monosaccharides are sugar molecules containing short chain of carbon atoms, one aldehydic or ketonic group and hydroxyl groups attached to remaining Carbon atoms.
Oligosaccharides are formed by polymerisation of monosaccharide molecules by elimination of water molecules.
Polysaccharides are high molecular weight substances composed of large number of moosaccharide units combined to form one large polymer molecule. They may be straight chain or branched chain polymers.
Disaccharides are double sugars that yield two simple sugars called monosaccharides upon hydrolysis. The three main disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, and lactose. They differ in their solubility, with sucrose being very soluble, maltose fairly soluble, and lactose only slightly soluble. Disaccharides are formed through a dehydration synthesis reaction combining two monosaccharides. Their structures depend on the type of glycosidic linkage between the monosaccharides. This determines their properties such as whether they are reducing sugars or able to undergo fermentation.
This document provides information on carbohydrates including their definition, classification, structures, and biological importance. It begins by defining carbohydrates and discussing their classification into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides based on the number of sugar units. Important monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose are described along with their reactions and structural aspects. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose are also discussed. The document then covers polysaccharides including starch, glycogen, and mucopolysaccharides; and concludes by emphasizing the key roles and functions of carbohydrates in biological systems.
Disaccharides are carbohydrates formed from two monosaccharides bonded together. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Maltose contains two glucose molecules bonded with an alpha-1,4 linkage. Lactose contains glucose and galactose with a beta-1,4 linkage. Sucrose contains glucose and fructose with an alpha-1,2 linkage. These disaccharides differ in their monosaccharide components and bond linkages.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be further broken down. They are categorized by the number of carbons they contain and whether they have an aldehyde or ketone functional group. Monosaccharides can exist as different isomers depending on the spatial arrangement of their atoms. Some types of isomerism in monosaccharides include stereoisomers, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, and pyranose-furanose isomers.
The document discusses the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle. It provides three key points:
1. The TCA cycle involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide and water and is the final common pathway for carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids.
2. The cycle generates energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2 and provides precursors for biosynthesis.
3. The cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is tightly regulated by enzymes and cellular energy levels to integrate major metabolic pathways.
Triglycerides are composed of glycerol bonded to three fatty acid chains. They are the main constituents of body fats and oils. Triglyceride structure consists of a glycerol backbone bonded to fatty acid chains through ester linkages. The physical properties of triglycerides, such as melting point, depend on the length and saturation of the fatty acid chains. Saturated fatty acid chains pack tightly, causing triglycerides with more saturated chains to be solid at room temperature. Unsaturated chains do not pack as tightly, making triglycerides with more unsaturated chains liquid at room temperature. Triglycerides undergo three main reactions: hydrolysis, saponification, and hydrogenation.
Classification of enzymes and properties of enzymesmuti ullah
Transferases are enzymes that catalyze the transfer of functional groups between molecules. There are five main subclasses of transferases: transaminases, kinases, transmethylases, transpeptidases, and transacylases. Transaminases specifically catalyze the exchange of amino groups between amino acids and keto acids. Phosphotransferases catalyze the transfer of phosphate groups.
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their main biological functions. It then discusses the three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. For each class, key examples are provided and their structures and properties are explained. The document also covers topics like stereochemistry of carbohydrates, glycosaminoglycans, and important monosaccharides and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. In summary, it serves as a comprehensive overview of carbohydrate structure, classification, and functions in biological systems.
This document provides information about various carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It discusses the structures and properties of common disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Larger carbohydrates covered include maltodextrins, dextrans, inulin, chitin, cellulose, starch, and glycogen. For each carbohydrate, details are given about its source, structure, properties when tested, and digestive breakdown. The document aims to describe the chemistry of many important carbohydrates.
Lipids are organic compounds formed from fatty acids and alcohol. They include fats, oils, waxes and related compounds. Lipids provide energy, essential fatty acids, and aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. They are important components of cell membranes and play roles in insulation, cushioning of organs, and energy storage. Analysis of lipid properties such as iodine number and saponification number can provide information about degree of unsaturation and fatty acid content. Rancidity reduces lipid quality through hydrolysis or oxidation.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate chemistry. It defines carbohydrates and discusses their classification, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Key topics include the structures of common monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, as well as their properties including isomerism, stereoisomerism, and mutarotation. Common reactions of monosaccharides such as reduction, oxidation, and glycoside formation are also summarized. The document concludes with brief discussions of important disaccharides like sucrose and lactose, as well as polysaccharides including starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
The document discusses various chemical properties and reactions of monosaccharides, including:
1) Reaction with hydrazines to form osazones and reduction to form sugar alcohols such as sorbitol and mannitol.
2) Oxidation to produce sugar acids such as gluconic acid, which is important physiologically for detoxification.
3) Reducing action in alkaline solutions and formation of esters, phosphates, acetates, and propionates.
4) Formation of important sugar derivatives like amino sugars and glycosides.
1. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are polysaccharides made of glucose monomers that differ in their structure and function.
2. Starch has a linear structure that allows for close packing, making it a good energy store that can be easily broken down into glucose.
3. Glycogen branches, allowing several branches to be cut off at once to quickly supply energy.
4. Cellulose has hydroxyl groups that form hydrogen bonds between chains, holding them firmly together into strong microfibrils.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars with 3 to 7 carbons that are sweet in taste and cannot be further broken down. They include trioses like glyceraldehyde, pentoses that form the backbone of nucleic acids and polysaccharides, and hexoses such as glucose and fructose. Glucose is an important energy source for the body and precursor to cellulose, glycogen and starch. Fructose is sweeter than glucose and found naturally in fruits.
This slide will help you to understand about chemical reactions of monosaccharides and Disaccharides. The carbohydrate can can undergo several reactions like oxidation, reduction, esterification, dehydration and tautomerization to give various products.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate chemistry. It begins by defining carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are obtained primarily from plants through photosynthesis but can also be synthesized by animals. The carbon cycle describes how carbon is recycled on Earth through photosynthesis and respiration. The document then classifies monosaccharides based on their carbon number and functional groups, discusses D and L stereoisomers and Fischer projections, and describes important monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and fructose along with their structures. It also covers cyclic structures of monosaccharides, mutarotation, and glycosidic bonds.
Oligosaccharides are sugar molecules made of 2-10 monosaccharide units. They are less sweet and less soluble than monosaccharides. Oligosaccharides are classified based on the number of monosaccharide units and include disaccharides with 2 units, trisaccharides with 3 units, and tetrasaccharides and pentasaccharides with 4 and 5 units respectively. Oligosaccharides are not digested by humans but are consumed by intestinal bacteria, which is important as it helps the growth of microflora, reduces pathogens, prevents constipation, and provides other health benefits.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules found in nature. They are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, or compounds that produce them upon hydrolysis. Carbohydrates serve several important functions including energy storage, structure, and participating in cellular functions. They exhibit structural diversity in the forms of monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides can further be classified based on functional groups, number of carbons, and whether they are in the D or L form.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules found in nature. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides based on their sugar unit composition. Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit and cannot be further broken down, while oligosaccharides contain 2-10 sugar units and polysaccharides are polymers of sugar units. Carbohydrates exhibit structural features like asymmetric carbons, stereoisomers, D and L forms, and optical activity that influence their properties.
Disaccharides are double sugars that yield two simple sugars called monosaccharides upon hydrolysis. The three main disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, and lactose. They differ in their solubility, with sucrose being very soluble, maltose fairly soluble, and lactose only slightly soluble. Disaccharides are formed through a dehydration synthesis reaction combining two monosaccharides. Their structures depend on the type of glycosidic linkage between the monosaccharides. This determines their properties such as whether they are reducing sugars or able to undergo fermentation.
This document provides information on carbohydrates including their definition, classification, structures, and biological importance. It begins by defining carbohydrates and discussing their classification into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides based on the number of sugar units. Important monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose are described along with their reactions and structural aspects. Disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose are also discussed. The document then covers polysaccharides including starch, glycogen, and mucopolysaccharides; and concludes by emphasizing the key roles and functions of carbohydrates in biological systems.
Disaccharides are carbohydrates formed from two monosaccharides bonded together. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Maltose contains two glucose molecules bonded with an alpha-1,4 linkage. Lactose contains glucose and galactose with a beta-1,4 linkage. Sucrose contains glucose and fructose with an alpha-1,2 linkage. These disaccharides differ in their monosaccharide components and bond linkages.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be further broken down. They are categorized by the number of carbons they contain and whether they have an aldehyde or ketone functional group. Monosaccharides can exist as different isomers depending on the spatial arrangement of their atoms. Some types of isomerism in monosaccharides include stereoisomers, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, and pyranose-furanose isomers.
The document discusses the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle. It provides three key points:
1. The TCA cycle involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide and water and is the final common pathway for carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids.
2. The cycle generates energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2 and provides precursors for biosynthesis.
3. The cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is tightly regulated by enzymes and cellular energy levels to integrate major metabolic pathways.
Triglycerides are composed of glycerol bonded to three fatty acid chains. They are the main constituents of body fats and oils. Triglyceride structure consists of a glycerol backbone bonded to fatty acid chains through ester linkages. The physical properties of triglycerides, such as melting point, depend on the length and saturation of the fatty acid chains. Saturated fatty acid chains pack tightly, causing triglycerides with more saturated chains to be solid at room temperature. Unsaturated chains do not pack as tightly, making triglycerides with more unsaturated chains liquid at room temperature. Triglycerides undergo three main reactions: hydrolysis, saponification, and hydrogenation.
Classification of enzymes and properties of enzymesmuti ullah
Transferases are enzymes that catalyze the transfer of functional groups between molecules. There are five main subclasses of transferases: transaminases, kinases, transmethylases, transpeptidases, and transacylases. Transaminases specifically catalyze the exchange of amino groups between amino acids and keto acids. Phosphotransferases catalyze the transfer of phosphate groups.
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their main biological functions. It then discusses the three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. For each class, key examples are provided and their structures and properties are explained. The document also covers topics like stereochemistry of carbohydrates, glycosaminoglycans, and important monosaccharides and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. In summary, it serves as a comprehensive overview of carbohydrate structure, classification, and functions in biological systems.
This document provides information about various carbohydrates including monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It discusses the structures and properties of common disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Larger carbohydrates covered include maltodextrins, dextrans, inulin, chitin, cellulose, starch, and glycogen. For each carbohydrate, details are given about its source, structure, properties when tested, and digestive breakdown. The document aims to describe the chemistry of many important carbohydrates.
Lipids are organic compounds formed from fatty acids and alcohol. They include fats, oils, waxes and related compounds. Lipids provide energy, essential fatty acids, and aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. They are important components of cell membranes and play roles in insulation, cushioning of organs, and energy storage. Analysis of lipid properties such as iodine number and saponification number can provide information about degree of unsaturation and fatty acid content. Rancidity reduces lipid quality through hydrolysis or oxidation.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate chemistry. It defines carbohydrates and discusses their classification, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Key topics include the structures of common monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, as well as their properties including isomerism, stereoisomerism, and mutarotation. Common reactions of monosaccharides such as reduction, oxidation, and glycoside formation are also summarized. The document concludes with brief discussions of important disaccharides like sucrose and lactose, as well as polysaccharides including starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
The document discusses various chemical properties and reactions of monosaccharides, including:
1) Reaction with hydrazines to form osazones and reduction to form sugar alcohols such as sorbitol and mannitol.
2) Oxidation to produce sugar acids such as gluconic acid, which is important physiologically for detoxification.
3) Reducing action in alkaline solutions and formation of esters, phosphates, acetates, and propionates.
4) Formation of important sugar derivatives like amino sugars and glycosides.
1. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are polysaccharides made of glucose monomers that differ in their structure and function.
2. Starch has a linear structure that allows for close packing, making it a good energy store that can be easily broken down into glucose.
3. Glycogen branches, allowing several branches to be cut off at once to quickly supply energy.
4. Cellulose has hydroxyl groups that form hydrogen bonds between chains, holding them firmly together into strong microfibrils.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars with 3 to 7 carbons that are sweet in taste and cannot be further broken down. They include trioses like glyceraldehyde, pentoses that form the backbone of nucleic acids and polysaccharides, and hexoses such as glucose and fructose. Glucose is an important energy source for the body and precursor to cellulose, glycogen and starch. Fructose is sweeter than glucose and found naturally in fruits.
This slide will help you to understand about chemical reactions of monosaccharides and Disaccharides. The carbohydrate can can undergo several reactions like oxidation, reduction, esterification, dehydration and tautomerization to give various products.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate chemistry. It begins by defining carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are obtained primarily from plants through photosynthesis but can also be synthesized by animals. The carbon cycle describes how carbon is recycled on Earth through photosynthesis and respiration. The document then classifies monosaccharides based on their carbon number and functional groups, discusses D and L stereoisomers and Fischer projections, and describes important monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and fructose along with their structures. It also covers cyclic structures of monosaccharides, mutarotation, and glycosidic bonds.
Oligosaccharides are sugar molecules made of 2-10 monosaccharide units. They are less sweet and less soluble than monosaccharides. Oligosaccharides are classified based on the number of monosaccharide units and include disaccharides with 2 units, trisaccharides with 3 units, and tetrasaccharides and pentasaccharides with 4 and 5 units respectively. Oligosaccharides are not digested by humans but are consumed by intestinal bacteria, which is important as it helps the growth of microflora, reduces pathogens, prevents constipation, and provides other health benefits.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules found in nature. They are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, or compounds that produce them upon hydrolysis. Carbohydrates serve several important functions including energy storage, structure, and participating in cellular functions. They exhibit structural diversity in the forms of monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides can further be classified based on functional groups, number of carbons, and whether they are in the D or L form.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules found in nature. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides based on their sugar unit composition. Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit and cannot be further broken down, while oligosaccharides contain 2-10 sugar units and polysaccharides are polymers of sugar units. Carbohydrates exhibit structural features like asymmetric carbons, stereoisomers, D and L forms, and optical activity that influence their properties.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include sugars, starches, and fibers. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose are simple sugars that cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides like sucrose and lactose are composed of two monosaccharides joined together. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharides and include starches, glycogen, and fibers. Carbohydrates serve important functions as energy sources, structural components in plants, and as a way for cells and organisms to store energy.
Carbohydrates are an essential organic compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as the primary energy source for living organisms. There are three main types of carbohydrates - monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose are the simplest form, while polysaccharides such as starch, cellulose, and glycogen are made of many monosaccharide units linked together. Carbohydrates play important structural and energy storage roles in plants and animals. They are broken down and used for energy, and the carbon atoms are used to build other biomolecules. Common carbohydrates in our diets include starch, fiber, and sugars.
This presentation involves with the principle and types of carbohydrates and their functions, examples and basic knowledge
It helps to gain knowledge about the carbohydrates in the simpler form of hint points
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and starches/fibers (polysaccharides). Monosaccharides like glucose are the simplest type, while polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds. Carbohydrates serve important functions like energy storage, structure in cell walls, and as components of other biomolecules. They are classified based on their structure as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides.
carbohydrates-131204014552-phpapp02.pdf for agricultural department in nutritionsharanjain0
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as an energy source. They include monosaccharides (simple sugars), oligosaccharides (short-chain sugars), and polysaccharides (long-chain sugars). Monosaccharides like glucose are the basic unit of carbohydrates and provide energy through cellular respiration. Plants convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose through photosynthesis. Polysaccharides like starch and cellulose function as energy storage and provide structure to plants. Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure and number of monosaccharide units. They play essential roles in energy storage, structure, and metabolism.
Carbohydrates are one of the four major macromolecules and are the most abundant organic molecules in nature. They contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates have many functions including energy storage, structural components, and cell signaling. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar units. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Polysaccharides serve important structural and storage roles. Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides through digestion before being absorbed.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as a source of energy. They include sugars, starches, and fibers. Sugars are small carbohydrate molecules, like glucose, fructose, and galactose. Multiple sugars can be linked together to form larger carbohydrates like oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Starch is a polysaccharide made of linked glucose units that plants store as an energy source. Glycogen serves the same function as starch but is found in animals. Cellulose, another polysaccharide made of glucose, gives structure to plant cell walls.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate chemistry. It defines carbohydrates and discusses their biological importance and classification. Key points include: carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and serve important energy storage and structural functions. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides based on the number of sugar units. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, galactose and mannose. Disaccharides like lactose, maltose and sucrose are formed via glycosidic bonds between monosaccharides. Polysaccharides have high molecular weights and include starch, glycogen and mucopolysaccharides.
Biochemistry of Carbohydrates for MBBS, BDS, Lab Med 2024.pptxRajendra Dev Bhatt
Carbohydrates are carbon compounds that contain large quantities of hydroxyl groups.
The simplest carbohydrates also contain either an aldehyde moiety (these are termed polyhydroxyaldehydes) or a ketone moiety (polyhydroxyketones).
All carbohydrates can be classified as either monosaccharides, oligosaccharides or polysaccharides.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that serve as a primary energy source. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their structure. The three most common disaccharides are maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Polysaccharides include glycogen, starch, and cellulose. Glycogen functions as energy storage in animals, while cellulose provides structure to plant cell walls. Carbohydrates play important structural and functional roles throughout biology.
Carbohydrate Str, Func and classification.pdfpriyanshpatel29
This document provides an overview of carbohydrates and their classification. It begins by defining carbohydrates and discussing their importance as energy sources. It then classifies carbohydrates as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monosaccharide units. Common monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose are discussed in more detail regarding their structures, stereoisomers, anomers, and cyclic forms. The document emphasizes that carbohydrates serve structural roles in plants and energy storage roles in animals.
This document provides an overview of biochemistry. It begins by defining biochemistry as the science concerned with the chemical basis of life and the chemical constituents of living cells. It then discusses the main biomolecules that make up the human body - proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and water. For each biomolecule, it provides information on their composition, structure, functions, and classification. It also discusses the study of metabolic processes and provides examples of carbohydrate, lipid, and nucleic acid chemistry and structures.
This document discusses biomolecules and carbohydrates. It begins by defining biomolecules and explaining their importance in living systems. It then classifies and describes different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, disaccharides like sucrose and maltose, and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. It discusses the structures, properties, and functions of these carbohydrates. The document also briefly mentions proteins and amino acids.
introduction to Carbohydrates and its typeSekho Science
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include sugars, starches, and fibers. Sugars can be monosaccharides (such as glucose, fructose, galactose), which cannot be broken down further, or polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose. Monosaccharides can exist as open-chain or cyclic structures and exhibit different forms including anomers, enantiomers, and epimers. Carbohydrates serve important functions as energy sources, components of cells and tissues, and in nutrient absorption and storage.
Chemistry of life (Biochemistry) The study of chemical .docxbissacr
Chemistry of life (Biochemistry)
The study of chemical compounds that are vital for living organisms to sustain life is called biochemistry. The subject deals with the nature of these compounds and characteristic reactions they make inside the living organisms . We are not involved fundamentally with the study of biochemistry as a subject , but to give brief introduction to main classes of the organic compounds in this important field. It is beyond this discussion to present detailed explanation of these essential organic substances . We will give short introduction of the main classes and their active role in our body . Some of these groups are , carbohydrates , fats and proteins, etc..
· Carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are classes of organic compounds that consist of carbon , hydrogen and oxygen with an empirical formula of Cm(H2O)n in most cases . The terms m and n can be the same as in the case of C6H12O6 (glucose) or different in the case of C12H22O11 (sucrose) . Another important feature of the carbohydrates is that oxygen and hydrogen are generally in ratio of 2:1 , so that it was historically called hydrates of carbon ; but not all compounds of carbohydrates necessarily maintain this hydrogen – oxygen ratio and not all compounds that fit this hydrogen-oxygen ratio are carbohydrates .
In biochemistry the term carbohydrate denotes different compounds called saccharides . These compounds include sugars , starch and cellulose . Saccharides (Greek word meaning sugars) are generally classified into monosaccharides , disaccharides and polysaccharides .
Monosaccharides are the simple sugars which are either aldoses (aldehydes) like glucose or ketoses ( ketones) like fructose . These simple sugars are further classified on the base of the number of carbon atoms they contain like pentose (containing five carbon atoms) , or hexose (containing six carbon atoms) .
Carbohydrates are naturally formed in a process called photosynthesis in which plants combine CO2 from the air and water from the soil in the presence of chlorophyll , sunlight and certain enzymes producing simple sugars .
6 CO2 + 6H2O (sun light) C6H12O6 + 6O2
sugar(glucose)
This above reaction is not simple process as it looks , but extremely complicated reaction with different intermediate steps before it gives the final product . since the final product is a monosaccharide , plants have the ability to synthesize disaccharides by combining two molecules of monosaccharides .
2 C6H12O6 C12H1.
Bio molecules include macromolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids as well as small molecules like primary and secondary metabolites. There are four major classes of biomolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The main types are monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Carbohydrates serve important functions like energy storage, structure of genetic material, and cell structures.
This document contains a table of contents for a chemistry textbook. It lists 15 units that cover topics such as haloalkanes and haloarenes, alcohols and ethers, aldehydes and ketones, biomolecules, polymers, and chemistry in everyday life. Each unit provides classifications, nomenclature, properties, reactions and other information about the substances covered in that section. The document also references answers to exercises and an index at the end.
This document discusses the importance of chemistry in everyday life and how it relates to areas like medicines, food, and cleansing agents. It aims to explain how various types of drugs function in the body. Specifically, it will discuss how drugs can be classified based on their pharmacological effect, action, chemical structure, and molecular targets. It will also explain drug-target interaction, focusing on how drugs interact with enzymes and receptors in the body. Drugs usually work by inhibiting the catalytic activity of enzymes or preventing the binding of substrates to the active site of enzymes.
This document provides information about polymers including their classification, important types, and examples. It begins by defining polymers as large molecules formed by the linking of repeating structural units known as monomers.
Polymers can be classified in several ways such as by source (natural, semi-synthetic, synthetic), structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), mode of polymerization (addition, condensation), and intermolecular forces. Important addition polymers formed through chain growth include polyethylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, and polyacrylonitrile. Important condensation polymers formed through step-growth include nylon, polyesters like dacron, phenol-formaldehyde polymers like bakelite, and melamine
This document discusses aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids. It begins by stating the objectives of understanding the nomenclature, structures, properties, reactions and uses of these carbonyl compounds. It then defines aldehydes as containing a carbonyl group bonded to a carbon and hydrogen, ketones as bonded to two carbons, and carboxylic acids as bonded to an oxygen. The document provides examples of common and IUPAC names for some aldehydes and ketones. It notes that carbonyl compounds play important roles in biochemistry, adding flavors and fragrances to nature. They are also used in foods, pharmaceuticals, solvents, and materials like plastics and fabrics.
This document discusses the classification, nomenclature, and preparation of alcohols, phenols, and ethers. It begins by classifying these compounds as mono-, di-, tri-, or polyhydric depending on the number of hydroxyl groups present. It then discusses IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming these compounds systematically. Finally, it describes several methods for preparing alcohols and phenols, including hydration of alkenes, hydroboration-oxidation of alkenes, and substitution reactions of aromatic compounds.
The document discusses the classification, nomenclature, preparation methods, and properties of organohalogen compounds known as haloalkanes and haloarenes. Haloalkanes contain halogen atoms bonded to sp3 or sp2 hybridized carbon atoms, while haloarenes contain halogen atoms bonded to sp2 hybridized carbon atoms of an aryl group. Common preparation methods include the reaction of alcohols, hydrocarbons, alkenes, and aromatic amines with halogen acids, halogens, or diazonium salts.
This document contains answers to questions from exercises in Units 11-15 of a chemistry textbook. In Unit 11, the answers include IUPAC names of organic compounds and equations for reactions. Unit 12 focuses on carbonyl compounds, including IUPAC names, reactions, and properties. Unit 13 discusses amines, including their IUPAC names and relative basicities. Unit 15 defines key terms related to polymers such as monomer and polymerization and provides examples of natural and synthetic polymers.
This document discusses amines, which are organic compounds derived from ammonia by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. Amines can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the number of hydrogen atoms replaced. They have important commercial uses as intermediates in making medicines and fibers. Diazonium salts are also discussed as intermediates used to synthesize aromatic compounds like dyes.
The document discusses the characteristics of solids. It describes how solids have fixed positions and rigid structures, unlike liquids and gases which can flow freely. Solids are classified as either crystalline or amorphous based on the ordering of particles. Crystalline solids have long-range orderly patterns that repeat, while amorphous solids only have short-range order and irregular particle shapes. Properties like melting point and ability to flow differ between the two types of solids based on their particle arrangements.
This document provides information about coordination compounds and Werner's theory of coordination compounds. It begins with an overview of coordination compounds and their importance. It then discusses Werner's theory, including his postulates about primary and secondary valences of metal ions and the coordination number being equal to the number of ligands bound to the metal ion. The document defines key terms related to coordination compounds such as coordination entity, central atom/ion, ligands, coordination number, and isomers. It also discusses nomenclature rules for writing formulas and names of mononuclear coordination compounds. The summary is as follows:
1) The document discusses Werner's pioneering theory of coordination compounds and key postulates about metal ion valences and coordination geometry
1) The d-block elements occupy the central section of the periodic table between the s-block and p-block elements. They are called transition elements because their position is between these blocks.
2) The electronic configurations of transition elements generally follow the pattern (n-1)d1-10ns1-2, with the (n-1)d orbitals being progressively filled. However, there are some exceptions due to small energy differences between orbitals.
3) The d-block elements are divided into series based on the filling of the d-orbitals - 3d, 4d, 5d and the incomplete 6d series. Zn, Cd and Hg are not considered transition metals
The document discusses trends in the properties of group 15 elements of the periodic table, which include nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. It notes that ionization energy decreases and atomic/ionic radii increase down the group as atomic size increases. Nitrogen and phosphorus are nonmetals, arsenic and antimony are metalloids, and bismuth is a metal. The electronic configuration is ns2np3 and oxidation states vary between -3 to +5, with the most common being -3, +3, and +5.
1. The document discusses principles of metallurgy and isolation of elements from ores. It covers topics like occurrence of metals, concentration of ores, extraction of crude metal, and thermodynamic principles.
2. Concentration of ores involves processes like magnetic separation, froth floatation, and leaching to separate the desired metal compound from unwanted gangue materials.
3. Extraction of the crude metal generally involves two steps - conversion of the concentrated ore to an oxide through calcination or roasting, and then reducing the oxide to the pure metal using a reducing agent like carbon at high temperatures.
This document discusses surface chemistry and adsorption. It begins by defining surface chemistry as phenomena that occur at interfaces between different phases, such as solid-gas interfaces. It then defines adsorption as the accumulation of molecules at surfaces rather than in the bulk of a solid or liquid. Adsorption occurs due to unbalanced attractive forces at surfaces. There are two main types of adsorption: physical adsorption due to weak van der Waals forces, and chemical adsorption where chemical bonds form between adsorbate and adsorbent molecules. The mechanism and factors affecting adsorption are also explained.
1. The document discusses chemical kinetics, which is the study of reaction rates and their mechanisms. It defines the average and instantaneous rates of reactions in terms of changes in reactant or product concentrations over time.
2. Reaction rates depend on factors like concentration, temperature, and catalysts. The rate law expresses how the rate of a reaction varies with changes in concentration. Generally, reaction rates increase with higher reactant concentrations and decrease over time as concentrations decrease.
3. For reactions where stoichiometric coefficients are not equal to one, the rates of appearance/disappearance must be divided by the appropriate coefficients to make the rates equal. This allows rates to be expressed consistently in terms of changes in concentrations of
This document discusses solutions and their properties. It defines different types of solutions such as gas-gas, liquid-liquid, and solid-liquid solutions. It also describes various ways to express the concentration of a solution, including mass percentage, volume percentage, parts per million, and mole fraction. Finally, it provides an example calculation for determining the mole fraction of a solution.
This document provides answers to questions from exercises in units 1-9 of a chemistry textbook. It includes:
1) Values for various chemistry calculations including molecular weights, concentrations, and thermodynamic quantities.
2) Descriptions of experimental procedures and results such as products formed from various reactions.
3) Explanations for concepts in inorganic chemistry including oxidation states of transition metals, acid-base theories, and principles of metallurgy.
This document provides a table of contents for a textbook on chemistry. The textbook is divided into 9 units covering topics such as the solid state, solutions, electrochemistry, chemical kinetics, and coordination compounds. Each unit is further divided into sections that provide more specific coverage of topics within that unit. The document also includes foreword, preface, and appendices sections.
This document provides information about polymers including their classification, important types, and examples. It begins by defining polymers as large molecules formed by the linking of repeating structural units known as monomers.
Polymers can be classified in several ways such as by source (natural, semi-synthetic, synthetic), structure (linear, branched, cross-linked), mode of polymerization (addition, condensation), and intermolecular forces. Important addition polymers formed through chain growth include polyethylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, and polyacrylonitrile. Important condensation polymers formed through step growth include nylon, polyesters like dacron, phenol-formaldehyde polymers like bakelite, and melamine-
This document discusses the importance of chemistry in everyday life and how it relates to areas like medicines, food, and cleansing agents. It aims to explain how various types of drugs function in the body. Specifically, it will discuss how drugs can be classified based on their pharmacological effect, action, chemical structure, and molecular targets. It will also explain drug-target interaction, focusing on how drugs interact with enzymes and receptors in the body. Drugs usually work by inhibiting the catalytic activity of enzymes or preventing the binding of substrates to the active site of enzymes.
In his public lecture, Christian Timmerer provides insights into the fascinating history of video streaming, starting from its humble beginnings before YouTube to the groundbreaking technologies that now dominate platforms like Netflix and ORF ON. Timmerer also presents provocative contributions of his own that have significantly influenced the industry. He concludes by looking at future challenges and invites the audience to join in a discussion.
Full-RAG: A modern architecture for hyper-personalizationZilliz
Mike Del Balso, CEO & Co-Founder at Tecton, presents "Full RAG," a novel approach to AI recommendation systems, aiming to push beyond the limitations of traditional models through a deep integration of contextual insights and real-time data, leveraging the Retrieval-Augmented Generation architecture. This talk will outline Full RAG's potential to significantly enhance personalization, address engineering challenges such as data management and model training, and introduce data enrichment with reranking as a key solution. Attendees will gain crucial insights into the importance of hyperpersonalization in AI, the capabilities of Full RAG for advanced personalization, and strategies for managing complex data integrations for deploying cutting-edge AI solutions.
Pushing the limits of ePRTC: 100ns holdover for 100 daysAdtran
At WSTS 2024, Alon Stern explored the topic of parametric holdover and explained how recent research findings can be implemented in real-world PNT networks to achieve 100 nanoseconds of accuracy for up to 100 days.
Observability Concepts EVERY Developer Should Know -- DeveloperWeek Europe.pdfPaige Cruz
Monitoring and observability aren’t traditionally found in software curriculums and many of us cobble this knowledge together from whatever vendor or ecosystem we were first introduced to and whatever is a part of your current company’s observability stack.
While the dev and ops silo continues to crumble….many organizations still relegate monitoring & observability as the purview of ops, infra and SRE teams. This is a mistake - achieving a highly observable system requires collaboration up and down the stack.
I, a former op, would like to extend an invitation to all application developers to join the observability party will share these foundational concepts to build on:
Essentials of Automations: The Art of Triggers and Actions in FMESafe Software
In this second installment of our Essentials of Automations webinar series, we’ll explore the landscape of triggers and actions, guiding you through the nuances of authoring and adapting workspaces for seamless automations. Gain an understanding of the full spectrum of triggers and actions available in FME, empowering you to enhance your workspaces for efficient automation.
We’ll kick things off by showcasing the most commonly used event-based triggers, introducing you to various automation workflows like manual triggers, schedules, directory watchers, and more. Plus, see how these elements play out in real scenarios.
Whether you’re tweaking your current setup or building from the ground up, this session will arm you with the tools and insights needed to transform your FME usage into a powerhouse of productivity. Join us to discover effective strategies that simplify complex processes, enhancing your productivity and transforming your data management practices with FME. Let’s turn complexity into clarity and make your workspaces work wonders!
AI 101: An Introduction to the Basics and Impact of Artificial IntelligenceIndexBug
Imagine a world where machines not only perform tasks but also learn, adapt, and make decisions. This is the promise of Artificial Intelligence (AI), a technology that's not just enhancing our lives but revolutionizing entire industries.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 5DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 5. In this session, we will cover CI/CD with devops.
Topics covered:
CI/CD with in UiPath
End-to-end overview of CI/CD pipeline with Azure devops
Speaker:
Lyndsey Byblow, Test Suite Sales Engineer @ UiPath, Inc.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 6DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 6. In this session, we will cover Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI.
UiPath Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI webinar offers an in-depth exploration of leveraging cutting-edge technologies for test automation within the UiPath platform. Attendees will delve into the integration of generative AI, a test automation solution, with Open AI advanced natural language processing capabilities.
Throughout the session, participants will discover how this synergy empowers testers to automate repetitive tasks, enhance testing accuracy, and expedite the software testing life cycle. Topics covered include the seamless integration process, practical use cases, and the benefits of harnessing AI-driven automation for UiPath testing initiatives. By attending this webinar, testers, and automation professionals can gain valuable insights into harnessing the power of AI to optimize their test automation workflows within the UiPath ecosystem, ultimately driving efficiency and quality in software development processes.
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into integrating generative AI.
2. Understanding how this integration enhances test automation within the UiPath platform
3. Practical demonstrations
4. Exploration of real-world use cases illustrating the benefits of AI-driven test automation for UiPath
Topics covered:
What is generative AI
Test Automation with generative AI and Open AI.
UiPath integration with generative AI
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
Dr. Sean Tan, Head of Data Science, Changi Airport Group
Discover how Changi Airport Group (CAG) leverages graph technologies and generative AI to revolutionize their search capabilities. This session delves into the unique search needs of CAG’s diverse passengers and customers, showcasing how graph data structures enhance the accuracy and relevance of AI-generated search results, mitigating the risk of “hallucinations” and improving the overall customer journey.
Cosa hanno in comune un mattoncino Lego e la backdoor XZ?Speck&Tech
ABSTRACT: A prima vista, un mattoncino Lego e la backdoor XZ potrebbero avere in comune il fatto di essere entrambi blocchi di costruzione, o dipendenze di progetti creativi e software. La realtà è che un mattoncino Lego e il caso della backdoor XZ hanno molto di più di tutto ciò in comune.
Partecipate alla presentazione per immergervi in una storia di interoperabilità, standard e formati aperti, per poi discutere del ruolo importante che i contributori hanno in una comunità open source sostenibile.
BIO: Sostenitrice del software libero e dei formati standard e aperti. È stata un membro attivo dei progetti Fedora e openSUSE e ha co-fondato l'Associazione LibreItalia dove è stata coinvolta in diversi eventi, migrazioni e formazione relativi a LibreOffice. In precedenza ha lavorato a migrazioni e corsi di formazione su LibreOffice per diverse amministrazioni pubbliche e privati. Da gennaio 2020 lavora in SUSE come Software Release Engineer per Uyuni e SUSE Manager e quando non segue la sua passione per i computer e per Geeko coltiva la sua curiosità per l'astronomia (da cui deriva il suo nickname deneb_alpha).
Removing Uninteresting Bytes in Software FuzzingAftab Hussain
Imagine a world where software fuzzing, the process of mutating bytes in test seeds to uncover hidden and erroneous program behaviors, becomes faster and more effective. A lot depends on the initial seeds, which can significantly dictate the trajectory of a fuzzing campaign, particularly in terms of how long it takes to uncover interesting behaviour in your code. We introduce DIAR, a technique designed to speedup fuzzing campaigns by pinpointing and eliminating those uninteresting bytes in the seeds. Picture this: instead of wasting valuable resources on meaningless mutations in large, bloated seeds, DIAR removes the unnecessary bytes, streamlining the entire process.
In this work, we equipped AFL, a popular fuzzer, with DIAR and examined two critical Linux libraries -- Libxml's xmllint, a tool for parsing xml documents, and Binutil's readelf, an essential debugging and security analysis command-line tool used to display detailed information about ELF (Executable and Linkable Format). Our preliminary results show that AFL+DIAR does not only discover new paths more quickly but also achieves higher coverage overall. This work thus showcases how starting with lean and optimized seeds can lead to faster, more comprehensive fuzzing campaigns -- and DIAR helps you find such seeds.
- These are slides of the talk given at IEEE International Conference on Software Testing Verification and Validation Workshop, ICSTW 2022.
GraphSummit Singapore | The Art of the Possible with Graph - Q2 2024Neo4j
Neha Bajwa, Vice President of Product Marketing, Neo4j
Join us as we explore breakthrough innovations enabled by interconnected data and AI. Discover firsthand how organizations use relationships in data to uncover contextual insights and solve our most pressing challenges – from optimizing supply chains, detecting fraud, and improving customer experiences to accelerating drug discoveries.
HCL Notes and Domino License Cost Reduction in the World of DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-and-domino-license-cost-reduction-in-the-world-of-dlau/
The introduction of DLAU and the CCB & CCX licensing model caused quite a stir in the HCL community. As a Notes and Domino customer, you may have faced challenges with unexpected user counts and license costs. You probably have questions on how this new licensing approach works and how to benefit from it. Most importantly, you likely have budget constraints and want to save money where possible. Don’t worry, we can help with all of this!
We’ll show you how to fix common misconfigurations that cause higher-than-expected user counts, and how to identify accounts which you can deactivate to save money. There are also frequent patterns that can cause unnecessary cost, like using a person document instead of a mail-in for shared mailboxes. We’ll provide examples and solutions for those as well. And naturally we’ll explain the new licensing model.
Join HCL Ambassador Marc Thomas in this webinar with a special guest appearance from Franz Walder. It will give you the tools and know-how to stay on top of what is going on with Domino licensing. You will be able lower your cost through an optimized configuration and keep it low going forward.
These topics will be covered
- Reducing license cost by finding and fixing misconfigurations and superfluous accounts
- How do CCB and CCX licenses really work?
- Understanding the DLAU tool and how to best utilize it
- Tips for common problem areas, like team mailboxes, functional/test users, etc
- Practical examples and best practices to implement right away
For the full video of this presentation, please visit: https://www.edge-ai-vision.com/2024/06/building-and-scaling-ai-applications-with-the-nx-ai-manager-a-presentation-from-network-optix/
Robin van Emden, Senior Director of Data Science at Network Optix, presents the “Building and Scaling AI Applications with the Nx AI Manager,” tutorial at the May 2024 Embedded Vision Summit.
In this presentation, van Emden covers the basics of scaling edge AI solutions using the Nx tool kit. He emphasizes the process of developing AI models and deploying them globally. He also showcases the conversion of AI models and the creation of effective edge AI pipelines, with a focus on pre-processing, model conversion, selecting the appropriate inference engine for the target hardware and post-processing.
van Emden shows how Nx can simplify the developer’s life and facilitate a rapid transition from concept to production-ready applications.He provides valuable insights into developing scalable and efficient edge AI solutions, with a strong focus on practical implementation.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
Best 20 SEO Techniques To Improve Website Visibility In SERPPixlogix Infotech
Boost your website's visibility with proven SEO techniques! Our latest blog dives into essential strategies to enhance your online presence, increase traffic, and rank higher on search engines. From keyword optimization to quality content creation, learn how to make your site stand out in the crowded digital landscape. Discover actionable tips and expert insights to elevate your SEO game.
Let's Integrate MuleSoft RPA, COMPOSER, APM with AWS IDP along with Slackshyamraj55
Discover the seamless integration of RPA (Robotic Process Automation), COMPOSER, and APM with AWS IDP enhanced with Slack notifications. Explore how these technologies converge to streamline workflows, optimize performance, and ensure secure access, all while leveraging the power of AWS IDP and real-time communication via Slack notifications.
20240605 QFM017 Machine Intelligence Reading List May 2024
Unit 14
1. Unit
Objectives
14
Biomolecules
After studying this Unit, you will be
able to
• define the biomolecules like “It is the harmonious and synchronous progress of chemical
carbohydrates, proteins and reactions in body which leads to life”.
nucleic acids;
• classify carbohydrates, proteins,
nucleic acids and vitamins on the A living system grows, sustains and reproduces itself.
basis of their structures; The most amazing thing about a living system is that it
• explain the difference between is composed of non-living atoms and molecules. The
DNA and RNA; pursuit of knowledge of what goes on chemically within
• appreciate the role of biomolecules a living system falls in the domain of biochemistry. Living
in biosystem. systems are made up of various complex biomolecules
like carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, etc.
Proteins and carbohydrates are essential constituents of
our food. These biomolecules interact with each other
and constitute the molecular logic of life processes. In
addition, some simple molecules like vitamins and
mineral salts also play an important role in the functions
of organisms. Structures and functions of some of these
biomolecules are discussed in this Unit.
14.1 Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are primarily produced by plants and form a very large
group of naturally occurring organic compounds. Some common
examples are cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc. Most of them have a
general formula, Cx(H2O)y, and were considered as hydrates of carbon
from where the name carbohydrate was derived. For example, the
molecular formula of glucose (C6H12O6) fits into this general formula,
C6(H2O)6. But all the compounds which fit into this formula may not be
classified as carbohydrates. Acetic acid (CH3COOH) fits into this general
formula, C2(H2O)2 but is not a carbohydrate. Similarly, rhamnose,
C6H12O5 is a carbohydrate but does not fit in this definition. A large
number of their reactions have shown that they contain specific
functional groups. Chemically, the carbohydrates may be defined as
optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds
which produce such units on hydrolysis. Some of the carbohydrates,
2. which are sweet in taste, are also called sugars. The most common
sugar, used in our homes is named as sucrose whereas the sugar
present in milk is known as lactose. Carbohydrates are also called
saccharides (Greek: sakcharon means sugar).
14.1.1 Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behaviour on
Classification of hydrolysis. They have been broadly divided into following three groups.
Carbohydrates (i) Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further
to give simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a
monosaccharide. About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in
nature. Some common examples are glucose, fructose, ribose, etc.
(ii) Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates that yield two to ten
monosaccharide units, on hydrolysis, are called oligosaccharides.
They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides,
tetrasaccharides, etc., depending upon the number of
monosaccharides, they provide on hydrolysis. Amongst these the most
common are disaccharides. The two monosaccharide units obtained
on hydrolysis of a disaccharide may be same or different. For example,
sucrose on hydrolysis gives one molecule each of glucose and fructose
whereas maltose gives two molecules of glucose only.
(iii) Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which yield a large number of
monosaccharide units on hydrolysis are called polysaccharides.
Some common examples are starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums,
etc. Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, hence they are also
called non-sugars.
The carbohydrates may also be classified as either reducing or non-
reducing sugars. All those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling’s
solution and Tollens’ reagent are referred to as reducing sugars. All
monosaccharides whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars.
In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosaccharides i.e.,
aldehydic or ketonic groups are bonded, these are non-reducing sugars
e.g. sucrose. On the other hand, sugars in which these functional groups
are free, are called reducing sugars, for example, maltose and lactose.
14.1.2 Monosaccharides are further classified on the basis of number of carbon
Monosaccharides atoms and the functional group present in them. If a monosaccharide
contains an aldehyde group, it is known as an aldose and if it contains
a keto group, it is known as a ketose. Number of carbon atoms
constituting the monosaccharide is also introduced in the name as is
evident from the examples given in Table 14.1
Table 14.1: Different Types of Monosaccharides
Carbon atoms General term Aldehyde Ketone
3 Triose Aldotriose Ketotriose
4 Tetrose Aldotetrose Ketotetrose
5 Pentose Aldopentose Ketopentose
6 Hexose Aldohexose Ketohexose
7 Heptose Aldoheptose Ketoheptose
Chemistry 404
C:Chemistry-12Unit-14.pmd 28.02.07
3. I Glucose
Glucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form. It is
present in sweet fruits and honey. Ripe grapes also contain glucose
in large amounts. It is prepared as follows:
14.1.3 1. From sucrose (Cane sugar): If sucrose is boiled with dilute HCl or
Preparation of H2SO4 in alcoholic solution, glucose and fructose are obtained in
Glucose equal amounts.
+
C12 H22O11 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯ C6 H12O6 + C6 H12O6
H
→
Sucrose Glucose Fructose
2. From starch: Commercially glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of
starch by boiling it with dilute H2SO4 at 393 K under pressure.
+
(C6 H10 O5 )n + nH2 O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ nC6 H12 O6
H
393 K; 2-3 atm
→
Starch or cellulose Glucose
14.1.4 Glucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose. It CHO
Structure of is the monomer of many of the larger carbohydrates, namely
Glucose (CHOH)4
starch, cellulose. It is probably the most abundant organic
compound on earth. It was assigned the structure given CH2OH
below on the basis of the following evidences:
1. Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6.
2. On prolonged heating with HI, it forms n-hexane, suggesting that all
the six carbon atoms are linked in a straight chain.
3. Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and adds a
molecule of hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin. These reactions
confirm the presence of a carbonyl group (>C = 0) in glucose.
4. Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid)
on reaction with a mild oxidising agent like bromine water. This
indicates that the carbonyl group is present as an aldehydic group.
CHO COOH
Br2 water (CHOH)4
(CHOH)4
CH2OH CH2OH
Gluconic acid
405 Biomolecules
C:Chemistry-12Unit-14.pmd 28.02.07
4. 5. Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose
pentaacetate which confirms the presence of five –OH groups. Since
it exists as a stable compound, five –OH groups should be attached
to different carbon atoms.
6. On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as gluconic acid both
yield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid. This indicates the presence
of a primary alcoholic (–OH) group in glucose.
CHO COOH COOH
Oxidation Oxidation
(CHOH)4 (CHOH)4 (CHOH)4
CH2OH COOH CH2OH
Saccharic Gluconic
acid acid
The exact spatial arrangement of different —OH groups was given
by Fischer after studying many other properties. Its configuration is
correctly represented as I. So gluconic acid is represented as II and
saccharic acid as III.
CHO COOH COOH
H OH H OH H OH
HO H HO H HO H
H OH H OH H OH
H OH H OH H OH
CH2OH CH2OH COOH
I II III
Glucose is correctly named as D(+)-glucose. ‘D’ before the name
of glucose represents the configuration whereas ‘(+)’ represents
dextrorotatory nature of the molecule. It may be remembered that ‘D’
and ‘L’ have no relation with the optical activity of the compound.
The meaning of D– and L– notations is given as follows.
The letters ‘D’ or ‘L’ before the name of any compound indicate the
relative configuration of a particular stereoisomer. This refers to their
relation with a particular isomer of glyceraldehyde. Glyceraldehyde
contains one asymmetric carbon atom and exists in two enantiomeric
forms as shown below.
Chemistry 406
C:Chemistry-12Unit-14.pmd 28.02.07
5. All those compounds which can be chemically correlated to (+) isomer
of glyceraldehyde are said to have D-configuration whereas those which
can be correlated to (–) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have
L—configuration. For assigning the configuration of monosaccharides,
it is the lowest asymmetric carbon atom (as shown below) which is
compared. As in (+) glucose, —OH on the lowest asymmetric carbon is
on the right side which is comparable to (+) glyceraldehyde, so it is
assigned D-configuration. For this comparison, the structure is written
in a way that most oxidised carbon is at the top.
CHO
H OH
HO H
CHO
H OH
H OH H OH
CH2OH CH2OH
D– (+) – Glyceraldehyde D–(+) – Glucose
14.1.5 Cyclic The structure (I) of glucose explained most of its properties but the
Structure following reactions and facts could not be explained by this structure.
of Glucose 1. Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give 2,4-DNP
test, Schiff’s test and it does not form the hydrogensulphite addition
product with NaHSO3.
2. The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine
indicating the absence of free —CHO group.
3. Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are
named as α and β. The α-form of glucose (m.p. 419 K) is obtained by
crystallisation from concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K while
the β-form (m.p. 423 K) is obtained by crystallisation from hot and
saturated aqueous solution at 371 K.
This behaviour could not be explained by the open chain structure
(I) for glucose. It was proposed that one of the —OH groups may add
to the —CHO group and form a cyclic hemiacetal structure. It was
found that glucose forms a six-membered ring in which —OH at C-5
is involved in ring formation. This explains the absence of —CHO
group and also existence of glucose in two forms as shown below.
These two cyclic forms exist in equilibrium with open chain structure.
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6. The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in the
configuration of the hydroxyl group at C1, called anomeric carbon
(the aldehyde carbon before cyclisation). Such isomers, i.e., α-form
and β-form, are called anomers. The six membered cyclic structure
of glucose is called pyranose structure (α– or β–), in analogy with
pyran. Pyran is a cyclic organic compound with one oxygen atom
and five carbon atoms in the ring. The cyclic structure of glucose is
more correctly represented by Haworth structure as given below.
II. Fructose
Fructose is an important ketohexose. It is obtained along with glucose
by the hydrolysis of disaccharide, sucrose.
14.1.6 Structure Fructose also has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and
of Fructose on the basis of its reactions it was found to contain a
ketonic functional group at carbon number 2 and six
carbons in straight chain as in the case of glucose. It
belongs to D-series and is a laevorotatory compound.
It is appropriately written as D-(–)-fructose. Its open
chain structure is as shown.
It also exists in two cyclic forms which are obtained by the addition of
—OH at C5 to the ( ) group. The ring, thus formed is a five membered
ring and is named as furanose with analogy to the compound furan. Furan
is a five membered cyclic compound with one oxygen and four carbon atoms.
The cyclic structures of two anomers of fructose are represented by
Haworth structures as given.
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7. 14.1.7 You have already read that disaccharides on hydrolysis with dilute
Disaccharides acids or enzymes yield two molecules of either the same or different
monosaccharides. The two monosaccharides are joined together by an
oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule. Such a linkage
between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called
glycosidic linkage.
(i) Sucrose: One of the common disaccharides is sucrose which on
hydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D-(+)-glucose and D-(-) fructose.
These two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic
linkage between C1 of α-glucose and C2 of β-fructose. Since the
reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic
bond formation, sucrose is a non reducing sugar.
Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives
dextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose. Since the
laevorotation of fructose (–92.4°) is more than dextrorotation of
glucose (+ 52.5°), the mixture is laevorotatory. Thus, hydrolysis of
sucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation, from dextro
(+) to laevo (–) and the product is named as invert sugar.
(ii) Maltose: Another disaccharide, maltose is composed of two
α-D-glucose units in which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to C4
of another glucose unit (II). The free aldehyde group can be
produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows reducing
properties so it is a reducing sugar.
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8. (iii) Lactose: It is more commonly known as milk sugar since this
disaccharide is found in milk. It is composed of β-D-galactose and
β-D-glucose. The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of
glucose. Hence it is also a reducing sugar.
14.1.8 Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined
Polysaccharides together by glycosidic linkages. These are the most commonly
encountered carbohydrates in nature. They mainly act as the food
storage or structural materials.
(i) Starch: Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants. It is
the most important dietary source for human beings. High content
of starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some vegetables. It
is a polymer of α-glucose and consists of two components—
Amylose and Amylopectin. Amylose is water soluble component
which constitutes about 15-20% of starch. Chemically amylose is
a long unbranched chain with 200-1000 α-D-(+)-glucose units
held by C1– C4 glycosidic linkage.
Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80-
85% of starch. It is a branched chain polymer of α-D-glucose
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9. units in which chain is formed by C1–C4 glycosidic linkage whereas
branching occurs by C1–C6 glycosidic linkage.
(ii) Cellulose: Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most
abundant organic substance in plant kingdom. It is a predominant
constituent of cell wall of plant cells. Cellulose is a straight chain
polysaccharide composed only of β-D-glucose units which are
joined by glycosidic linkage between C1 of one glucose unit and
C4 of the next glucose unit.
(iii) Glycogen: The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen.
It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar
to amylopectin and is rather more highly branched. It is present
in liver, muscles and brain. When the body needs glucose, enzymes
break the glycogen down to glucose. Glycogen is also found in
yeast and fungi.
14.1.9 Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and animals. They
Importance of form a major portion of our food. Honey has been used for a long time
Carbohydrates as an instant source of energy by ‘Vaids’ in ayurvedic system of medicine.
Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in plants and
glycogen in animals. Cell wall of bacteria and plants is made up of
cellulose. We build furniture, etc. from cellulose in the form of wood
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10. and clothe ourselves with cellulose in the form of cotton fibre.
They provide raw materials for many important industries like textiles,
paper, lacquers and breweries.
Two aldopentoses viz. D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose (Section
14.5.1, Class XII) are present in nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are found
in biosystem in combination with many proteins and lipids.
Intext Questions
14.1 Glucose or sucrose are soluble in water but cyclohexane or
benzene (simple six membered ring compounds) are insoluble in
water. Explain.
14.2 What are the expected products of hydrolysis of lactose?
14.3 How do you explain the absence of aldehyde group in the
pentaacetate of D-glucose?
14.2 Proteins Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system.
Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat,
etc. They occur in every part of the body and form the fundamental
basis of structure and functions of life. They are also required for
growth and maintenance of body. The word protein is derived from
Greek word, “proteios” which means primary or of prime importance.
All proteins are polymers of α-amino acids.
14.2.1 Amino Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional
Acids groups. Depending upon the relative position of amino group with
respect to carboxyl group, the amino acids can be
R CH COOH
classified as α, β, γ, δ and so on. Only α-amino
acids are obtained on hydrolysis of proteins. They NH2
may contain other functional groups also. a-amino acid
All α-amino acids have trivial names, which (R = side chain)
usually reflect the property of that compound or
its source. Glycine is so named since it has sweet taste (in Greek glykos
means sweet) and tyrosine was first obtained from cheese (in Greek, tyros
means cheese.) Amino acids are generally represented by a three letter
symbol, sometimes one letter symbol is also used. Structures of some
commonly occurring amino acids along with their 3-letter and 1-letter
symbols are given in Table 14.2.
COOH
Table 14.2: Natural Amino Acids H2N H
R
Name of the Characteristic feature Three letter One letter
amino acids of side chain, R symbol code
1. Glycine H Gly G
2. Alanine – CH3 Ala A
3. Valine* (H3C)2CH- Val V
4. Leucine* (H3C)2CH-CH2- Leu L
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11. 5. Isoleucine* H3C-CH2-CH- Ile I
|
CH3
6. Arginine* HN=C-NH-(CH2)3- Arg R
|
NH2
7. L ysine* H2N-(CH2)4- L ys K
8. Glutamic acid HOOC-CH2-CH2- Glu E
9. Aspartic acid HOOC-CH2- Asp D
O
|
|
10. Glutamine H2N-C-CH2-CH2- Gln Q
O
|
|
11. Asparagine H2N-C-CH2- Asn N
12. Threonine* H3C-CHOH- Thr T
13. Serine HO-CH2- Ser S
14. Cysteine HS-CH2- Cys C
15. Methionine* H3C-S-CH2-CH2- Met M
16. Phenylalanine* C6H5-CH2- Phe F
17. Tyrosine (p)HO-C6H4-CH2- Tyr Y
–CH2
18. Tryptophan* Trp W
N
H
19. Histidine* His H
20. Proline Pro P
* essential amino acid, a = entire structure
14.2.2 Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic or neutral depending upon
Classification of the relative number of amino and carboxyl groups in their molecule.
Amino Acids Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups makes it neutral; more
number of amino than carboxyl groups makes it basic and more
carboxyl groups as compared to amino groups makes it acidic. The
amino acids, which can be synthesised in the body, are known as non-
essential amino acids. On the other hand, those which cannot be
synthesised in the body and must be obtained through diet, are known
as essential amino acids (marked with asterisk in Table 14.2).
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12. Amino acids are usually colourless, crystalline solids. These are
water-soluble, high melting solids and behave like salts rather than
simple amines or carboxylic acids. This behaviour is due to the presence
of both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino
group) groups in the same molecule. In aqueous
solution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton
and amino group can accept a proton, giving rise
to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion. This is
neutral but contains both positive and negative
charges.
In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric behaviour as
they react both with acids and bases.
Except glycine, all other naturally occurring α-amino acids are
optically active, since the α-carbon atom is asymmetric. These exist
both in ‘D’ and ‘L’ forms. Most naturally occurring amino acids have
L-configuration. L-Aminoacids are represented by writing the –NH2 group
on left hand side.
14.2.3 Structure You have already read that proteins are the polymers of α-amino acids
of Proteins and they are connected to each other by peptide bond or peptide
linkage. Chemically, peptide linkage is an amide formed between
–COOH group and –NH2 group. The reaction between two molecules of
similar or different amino acids, proceeds through
the combination of the amino group of one molecule
with the carboxyl group of the other. This results in
the elimination of a water molecule and formation of
a peptide bond –CO–NH–. The product of the reaction
is called a dipeptide because it is made up of two
amino acids. For example, when carboxyl group of
glycine combines with the amino group of alanine
we get a dipeptide, glycylalanine.
If a third amino acid combines to a dipeptide, the product is called a
tripeptide. A tripeptide contains three amino acids linked by two peptide
linkages. Similarly when four, five or six amino acids are linked, the respective
products are known as tetrapeptide, pentapeptide or hexapeptide,
respectively. When the number of such amino acids is more than ten, then
the products are called polypeptides. A polypeptide with more than hundred
amino acid residues, having molecular mass higher than 10,000u is called
a protein. However, the distinction between a polypeptide and a protein is
not very sharp. Polypeptides with fewer amino acids are likely to be called
proteins if they ordinarily have a well defined conformation of a protein such
as insulin which contains 51 amino acids.
Proteins can be classified into two types on the basis of their
molecular shape.
(a) Fibrous proteins
When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by
hydrogen and disulphide bonds, then fibre– like structure is formed. Such
proteins are generally insoluble in water. Some common examples are
keratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles), etc.
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13. (b) Globular proteins
This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around
to give a spherical shape. These are usually soluble in water. Insulin
and albumins are the common examples of globular proteins.
Structure and shape of proteins can be studied at four different
levels, i.e., primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary, each level
being more complex than the previous one.
(i) Primary structure of proteins: Proteins may have
one or more polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide in a
protein has amino acids linked with each other in a
specific sequence and it is this sequence of amino acids
that is said to be the primary structure of that protein.
Any change in this primary structure i.e., the sequence
of amino acids creates a different protein.
(ii) Secondary structure of proteins: The secondary
structure of protein refers to the shape in which a long
polypeptide chain can exist. They are found to exist in
two different types of structures viz. α-helix and
β-pleated sheet structure. These structures arise due
to the regular folding of the backbone of the polypeptide
chain due to hydrogen bonding between and
–NH– groups of the peptide bond.
α-Helix is one of the most common ways in which a
polypeptide chain forms all possible hydrogen bonds by
twisting into a right handed screw (helix) with the
Fig. 14.1: α-Helix –NH group of each amino acid residue hydrogen bonded to the
structure of proteins C O of an adjacent turn of the helix as shown in Fig.14.1.
In β-structure all peptide chains are stretched out
to nearly maximum extension and then laid side by
side which are held together by intermolecular
hydrogen bonds. The structure resembles the pleated
folds of drapery and therefore is known as β-pleated
sheet.
(iii) Tertiary structure of proteins: The tertiary
structure of proteins represents overall folding of the
polypeptide chains i.e., further folding of the
secondary structure. It gives rise to two major
molecular shapes viz. fibrous and globular. The main
forces which stabilise the 2° and 3° structures of
proteins are hydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages,
van der Waals and electrostatic forces of attraction.
Fig. 14.2: β-Pleated sheet structure of (iv) Quaternary structure of proteins: Some of the
proteins proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide
chains referred to as sub-units. The spatial
arrangement of these subunits with respect to each
other is known as quaternary structure.
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14. A diagrammatic representation of all these four structures is
given in Figure 14.3 where each coloured ball represents an
amino acid.
Fig. 14.3: Diagrammatic representation of protein structure (two sub-units
of two types in quaternary structure)
Fig. 14.4: Primary,
secondary, tertiary
and quaternary
structures of
haemoglobin
14.2.4 Protein found in a biological system with a unique three-dimensional
Denaturation of structure and biological activity is called a native protein. When a
Proteins protein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like change
in temperature or chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen
bonds are disturbed. Due to this, globules unfold and helix get uncoiled
and protein loses its biological activity. This is called denaturation of
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15. protein. During denaturation 2° and 3° structures are destroyed but
1º structure remains intact. The coagulation of egg white on boiling is
a common example of denaturation. Another example is curdling of
milk which is caused due to the formation of lactic acid by the bacteria
present in milk.
Intext Questions
14.4 The melting points and solubility in water of amino acids are generally
higher than that of the corresponding halo acids. Explain.
14.5 Where does the water present in the egg go after boiling the egg?
14.3 Enzymes Life is possible due to the coordination of various chemical reactions in
living organisms. An example is the digestion of food, absorption of
appropriate molecules and ultimately production of energy. This process
involves a sequence of reactions and all these reactions occur in the
body under very mild conditions. This occurs with the help of certain
biocatalysts called enzymes. Almost all the enzymes are globular
proteins. Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction and for a
particular substrate. They are generally named after the compound or
class of compounds upon which they work. For example, the enzyme
that catalyses hydrolysis of maltose into glucose is named as maltase.
Maltase
C12 H22 O11 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2 C6 H12 O6
→
Maltose G lucose
Sometimes enzymes are also named after the reaction, where they
are used. For example, the enzymes which catalyse the oxidation of
one substrate with simultaneous reduction of another substrate are
named as oxidoreductase enzymes. The ending of the name of an
enzyme is -ase.
14.3.1 Mechanism Enzymes are needed only in small quantities for the progress of a reaction.
of Enzyme Similar to the action of chemical catalysts, enzymes are said to reduce
Action the magnitude of activation energy. For example, activation energy for
acid hydrolysis of sucrose is 6.22 kJ mol–1, while the activation energy is
only 2.15 kJ mol–1 when hydrolysed by the enzyme, sucrase. Mechanism
for the enzyme action has been discussed in Unit 5.
14.4 Vitamins It has been observed that certain organic compounds are required in
small amounts in our diet but their deficiency causes specific diseases.
These compounds are called vitamins. Most of the vitamins cannot be
synthesised in our body but plants can synthesise almost all of them,
so they are considered as essential food factors. However, the bacteria
of the gut can produce some of the vitamins required by us. All the
vitamins are generally available in our diet. Different vitamins belong
to various chemical classes and it is difficult to define them on the
basis of structure. They are generally regarded as organic compounds
required in the diet in small amounts to perform specific
biological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth
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16. and health of the organism. Vitamins are designated by alphabets
A, B, C, D, etc. Some of them are further named as sub-groups e.g. B1,
B2, B6, B12, etc. Excess of vitamins is also harmful and vitamin pills
should not be taken without the advice of doctor.
The term “Vitamine” was coined from the word vital + amine since
the earlier identified compounds had amino groups. Later work showed
that most of them did not contain amino groups, so the letter ‘e’ was
dropped and the term vitamin is used these days.
14.4.1 Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility
Classification of in water or fat.
Vitamins (i) Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils
but insoluble in water are kept in this group. These are vitamins A,
D, E and K. They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.
(ii) Water soluble vitamins: B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble
in water so they are grouped together. Water soluble vitamins must
be supplied regularly in diet because they are readily excreted in
urine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body.
Some important vitamins, their sources and diseases caused by
their deficiency are listed in Table 14.3.
Table 14.3: Some important Vitamins, their Sources and their
Deficiency Diseases
Sl. Name of Sources Deficiency diseases
No. Vitamins
1. Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, X e r o p h t h a l m i a
butter and milk (hardening of cornea of
eye)
Night blindness
2. Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green Beri beri (loss of appe-
(Thiamine) vegetables and cereals tite, retarded growth)
3. Vitamin B2 Milk, eggwhite, liver, Cheilosis (fissuring at
(Riboflavin) kidney corners of mouth and
lips), digestive disorders
and burning sensation
of the skin.
4. Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg yolk, Convulsions
(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams
5. Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and Pernicious anaemia
curd (RBC deficient in
haemoglobin)
6. Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla and Scurvy (bleeding gums)
(Ascorbic acid) green leafy vegetables
7. Vitamin D Exposure to sunlight, Rickets (bone deformities
fish and egg yolk in children) and osteo-
malacia (soft bones and
joint pain in adults)
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17. 8. Vitamin E Vegetable oils like wheat Increased fragility of
germ oil, sunflower oil, RBCs and muscular
etc. weakness
9. Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting
time
14.5: Nucleic Acids Every generation of each and every species resembles its ancestors in
many ways. How are these characteristics transmitted from one
generation to the next? It has been observed that nucleus of a living
cell is responsible for this transmission of inherent characters, also
called heredity. The particles in nucleus of the cell, responsible for
heredity, are called chromosomes which are made up of proteins and
another type of biomolecules called nucleic acids. These are mainly
of two types, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA). Since nucleic acids are long chain polymers of nucleotides, so
they are also called polynucleotides.
James Dewey Watson
Born in Chicago, Illinois, in 1928, Dr Watson received his Ph.D.
(1950) from Indiana University in Zoology. He is best known for
his discovery of the structure of DNA for which he shared with
Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins the 1962 Nobel prize in
Physiology and Medicine. They proposed that DNA molecule takes
the shape of a double helix, an elegantly simple structure that
resembles a gently twisted ladder. The rails of the ladder are
made of alternating units of phosphate and the sugar deoxyribose;
the rungs are each composed of a pair of purine/ pyrimidine bases. This
research laid the foundation for the emerging field of molecular biology. The
complementary pairing of nucleotide bases explains how identical copies of
parental DNA pass on to two daughter cells. This research launched a revolution
in biology that led to modern recombinant DNA techniques.
14.5.1 Chemical Complete hydrolysis of DNA (or RNA) yields a pentose sugar, phosphoric
Composition acid and nitrogen containing heterocyclic compounds (called bases). In
of Nucleic DNA molecules, the sugar moiety is β-D-2-deoxyribose whereas in
Acids RNA molecule, it is β-D-ribose.
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18. DNA contains four bases viz. adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C)
and thymine (T). RNA also contains four bases, the first three bases are
same as in DNA but the fourth one is uracil (U).
14.5.2 Structure A unit formed by the attachment of a base to 1′ position of sugar is
of Nucleic known as nucleoside. In nucleosides, the sugar carbons are numbered
Acids as 1′, 2′, 3′, etc. in order to distinguish these from the bases
(Fig. 14.5a). When nucleoside is linked to phosphoric acid at 5′-position
of sugar moiety, we get a nucleotide (Fig. 14.5).
Fig. 14.5: Structure of (a) a nucleoside and (b) a nucleotide
Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage between
5′ and 3′ carbon atoms of the pentose sugar. The formation of a typical
dinucleotide is shown in Fig. 14.6.
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19. Fig. 14.6: Formation of a dinucleotide
A simplified version of nucleic acid chain is as shown below.
Base Base Base
Sugar Phosphate Sugar Phosphate Sugar
n
Information regarding the sequence of nucleotides in the chain
of a nucleic acid is called its primary structure. Nucleic acids
have a secondary structure also. James Watson and Francis Crick
gave a double strand helix structure for DNA (Fig. 14.7). Two
nucleic acid chains are wound about each other and held together
by hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases. The two strands are
complementary to each other because the hydrogen bonds are
formed between specific pairs of bases. Adenine forms hydrogen
bonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds
with guanine.
In secondary structure of RNA, helices are present which are
only single stranded. Sometimes they fold back on themselves to
form a double helix structure. RNA molecules are of three types
and they perform different functions. They are named as messenger
RNA (m-RNA), ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) and transfer RNA
(t-RNA).
Fig. 14.7: Double strand helix structure for DNA
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20. Har Gobind Khorana
Har Gobind Khorana, was born in 1922. He obtained his M.Sc.
degree from Punjab University in Lahore. He worked with Professor
Vladimir Prelog, who moulded Khorana’s thought and philosophy
towards science, work and effort. After a brief stay in India in
1949, Khorana went back to England and worked with Professor
G.W. Kenner and Professor A.R.Todd. It was at Cambridge, U.K.
that he got interested in both proteins and nucleic acids. Dr Khorana shared the
Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology in 1968 with Marshall Nirenberg and Robert
Holley for cracking the genetic code.
DNA Fingerprinting
It is known that every individual has unique fingerprints. These occur at the
tips of the fingers and have been used for identification for a long time but these
can be altered by surgery. A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a
person and information regarding this is called DNA fingerprinting. It is same for
every cell and cannot be altered by any known treatment. DNA fingerprinting is
now used
(i) in forensic laboratories for identification of criminals.
(ii) to determine paternity of an individual.
(iii) to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the DNA’s of parents
or children.
(iv) to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.
14.5.3 Biological DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be regarded as the
Functions reserve of genetic information. DNA is exclusively responsible for
of Nucleic maintaining the identity of different species of organisms over millions
Acids of years. A DNA molecule is capable of self duplication during cell
division and identical DNA strands are transferred to daughter cells.
Another important function of nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in
the cell. Actually, the proteins are synthesised by various RNA molecules
in the cell but the message for the synthesis of a particular protein is
present in DNA.
Intext Questions
14.6 Why cannot vitamin C be stored in our body?
14.7 What products would be formed when a nucleotide from DNA containing
thymine is hydrolysed?
14.8 When RNA is hydrolysed, there is no relationship among the quantities of different
bases obtained. What does this fact suggest about the structure of RNA?
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21. Summary
Carbohydrates are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or molecules
which provide such units on hydrolysis. They are broadly classified into three groups
— monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Glucose, the most
important source of energy for mammals, is obtained by the digestion of starch.
Monosaccharides are held together by glycosidic linkages to form disaccharides or
polysaccharides.
Proteins are the polymers of about twenty different α-amino acids which
are linked by peptide bonds. Ten amino acids are called essential amino acids
because they cannot be synthesised by our body, hence must be provided through
diet. Proteins perform various structural and dynamic functions in the organisms.
Proteins which contain only α-amino acids are called simple proteins. The
secondary or tertiary structure of proteins get disturbed on change of pH or
temperature and they are not able to perform their functions. This is called
denaturation of proteins. Enzymes are biocatalysts which speed up the reactions
in biosystems. They are very specific and selective in their action and chemically
all enzymes are proteins.
Vitamins are accessory food factors required in the diet. They are classified
as fat soluble (A, D, E and K) and water soluble (Β group and C). Deficiency of
vitamins leads to many diseases.
Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides which in turn consist of a base,
a pentose sugar and phosphate moiety. Nucleic acids are responsible for the transfer
of characters from parents to offsprings. There are two types of nucleic acids —
DNA and RNA. DNA contains a five carbon sugar molecule called 2-deoxyribose
whereas RNA contains ribose. Both DNA and RNA contain adenine, guanine and
cytosine. The fourth base is thymine in DNA and uracil in RNA. The structure of
DNA is a double strand whereas RNA is a single strand molecule. DNA is the
chemical basis of heredity and have the coded message for proteins to be synthesised
in the cell. There are three types of RNA — mRNA, rRNA and tRNA which actually
carry out the protein synthesis in the cell.
Exercises
14.1 What are monosaccharides?
14.2 What are reducing sugars?
14.3 Write two main functions of carbohydrates in plants.
14.4 Classify the following into monosaccharides and disaccharides.
Ribose, 2-deoxyribose, maltose, galactose, fructose and lactose.
14.5 What do you understand by the term glycosidic linkage?
14.6 What is glycogen? How is it different from starch?
14.7 What are the hydrolysis products of
(i) sucrose and (ii) lactose?
14.8 What is the basic structural difference between starch and cellulose?
14.9 What happens when D-glucose is treated with the following reagents?
(i) HI (ii) Bromine water (iii) HNO3
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22. 14.10 Enumerate the reactions of D-glucose which cannot be explained by its
open chain structure.
14.11 What are essential and non-essential amino acids? Give two examples of
each type.
14.12 Define the following as related to proteins
(i) Peptide linkage (ii) Primary structure (iii) Denaturation.
14.13 What are the common types of secondary structure of proteins?
14.14 What type of bonding helps in stabilising the α-helix structure of proteins?
14.15 Differentiate between globular and fibrous proteins.
14.16 How do you explain the amphoteric behaviour of amino acids?
14.17 What are enzymes?
14.18 What is the effect of denaturation on the structure of proteins?
14.19 How are vitamins classified? Name the vitamin responsible for the
coagulation of blood.
14.20 Why are vitamin A and vitamin C essential to us? Give their important sources.
14.21 What are nucleic acids? Mention their two important functions.
14.22 What is the difference between a nucleoside and a nucleotide?
14.23 The two strands in DNA are not identical but are complementary. Explain.
14.24 Write the important structural and functional differences between DNA
and RNA.
14.25 What are the different types of RNA found in the cell?
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