Polysaccharides
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The document discusses various carbohydrates including disaccharides like maltose, cellobiose, lactose, and sucrose. It also mentions higher oligosaccharides that are incorporated into drug structures and polysaccharides such as amylose, amylopectin, glycogen, dextrans, and cellulose. The key differences between cellulose and amylose are noted. Finally, it briefly outlines O-linked and N-linked glycoproteins, providing the structures of ABO blood group carbohydrates.
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The TCA cycle and glyoxylate cycle are key metabolic pathways. The TCA cycle occurs in mitochondria and involves a series of reactions that oxidize acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, producing carbon dioxide, GTP, and NADH. The glyoxylate cycle is similar but allows microbes to use simple carbon sources by bypassing decarboxylation steps and converting acetyl-CoA into carbohydrates like glucose instead of oxidizing it fully. Both cycles share five enzymes but differ in that the glyoxylate cycle converts isocitrate into glyoxylate and succinate via isocitrate lyase instead of into α-ketoglutarate.
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A BRIEF PRESENTATION ON DISACCHARIDES.
NOTE- FONTS MAY APPEAR WEIRD BCOZ THE FONTS I USED DO NOT APPEAR IN THIS PPT.
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The document summarizes the process of beta-oxidation of fatty acids. It occurs in the mitochondrial matrix in four steps - oxidation, hydration, oxidation, and cleavage - resulting in the sequential removal of two-carbon acetyl-CoA units. Fatty acids are first activated to acyl-CoAs in the cytosol then transported into the mitochondria by the carnitine shuttle system to undergo beta-oxidation, generating acetyl-CoA, NADH, and FADH2. Defects in this process can cause various metabolic disorders like fatty acid oxidation disorders.
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This document discusses nucleotide chemistry. Nucleotides are organic compounds composed of a phosphate group, nitrogenous base, and a sugar molecule. They serve as the building blocks of nucleic acids DNA and RNA. Nucleotides also function as sources of chemical energy through molecules like ATP and GTP, and participate in cellular signaling through molecules like cAMP and cGMP. The document goes on to describe the specific sugars, bases, nucleosides, and nucleotides that make up DNA and RNA. It provides details on nucleotide nomenclature and classification and discusses important adenosine-containing nucleotides and their roles, such as ATP serving as an important energy source in many cellular processes.
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Classification of lipids according to chemical structure
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Polysaccharides
Glycans are polymers of monosaccharides or their derivatives linked together by glycosidic bonds. They exist in both linear and branched forms. Starch is a storage polysaccharide in plants composed of amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is an unbranched chain of glucose while amylopectin is highly branched with branches every 24-30 glucose units. Enzymes like amylase hydrolyze starch into sugars like maltose and dextrins. Dextrans are produced by bacteria and used in medical applications like plasma volume expansion. Glycogen is the form of starch storage in animal cells.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are complex monosaccharide polymers that serve a wide variety of functions. They can be classified as homopolymers containing a single monosaccharide unit or heteropolymers containing different sugar units. Starch is a major plant polysaccharide composed of amylose and amylopectin. It is used as food, in pharmaceuticals, and to produce dextrins and soluble starch. Dextrins are prepared from starch by partial hydrolysis and are used as substitutes for gums. Cyclodextrins are obtained from starch and have a hydrophobic central cavity, making them useful for enclosing drugs.
POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides or their derivatives joined by glycosidic bonds. They are classified as homopolymers or heteropolymers. Starch is a major homopolysaccharide composed of amylose and amylopectin, while glycogen is the animal equivalent found mainly in liver and muscle. Cellulose is an insoluble polymer of glucose that provides structure to plant cell walls. Mucopolysaccharides are heteropolymers containing amino sugars and acidic sugars. Common types include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate, heparin, and heparan sulfate. Mucopolysaccharidoses are a group of genetic disorders caused by
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This document provides information about polysaccharides. It defines polysaccharides as natural condensation polymers composed of long chains of monosaccharides. Polysaccharides are classified as homopolysaccharides or heteropolysaccharides depending on whether they are composed of one type of monosaccharide or multiple types. Examples of important polysaccharides are discussed, including starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, pectin, and hyaluronic acid. Their structures and functions in storage, structure, and as acidic polymers are described in 1-3 sentences for each.
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This document is the table of contents for the textbook "Inorganic Chemistry" by Gary L. Miessler and Donald A. Tarr. It provides an overview of the 16 chapters and 4 appendices that make up the textbook, with brief 1-3 sentence descriptions of the topics covered in each chapter and appendix. The textbook covers fundamental concepts in inorganic chemistry such as atomic structure, bonding theories, symmetry, acid-base chemistry, main group elements, coordination chemistry, and applications.
Polysaccharides types and Structural Features
1. The document discusses types and structural features of polysaccharides. It describes homopolysaccharides like starch, dextrin, inulin, glycogen, and cellulose.
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Coordination chemistry - MOT
Crystal field theory and ligand field theory describe how ligands interact with transition metal complexes. Crystal field theory uses an electrostatic model to explain orbital splitting, while ligand field theory uses a molecular orbital approach. Both theories predict that ligands cause the d orbitals on the metal to split into lower energy t2g and higher energy eg sets. The size of this splitting depends on whether ligands are σ-donors only, π-donors, or π-acceptors. π-Acceptors increase splitting while π-donors decrease it. This explains the spectrochemical series from weak to strong field ligands.
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This document provides an introduction to molecular orbital theory (MOT), which describes bonding between atoms using molecular orbitals formed from the combination of atomic orbitals. MOT allows prediction of electron distribution, molecular properties like shape and magnetism, and bond order strength. Principles of MOT include molecular orbitals having lower energy than separated atoms, causing electrons to prefer molecular bonds. Sigma and pi bonds are discussed, with sigma bonds symmetrical along the axis and pi bonds having side-by-side overlap with electron density above and below the axis. Bond order is calculated using the number of electrons in bonding and antibonding orbitals and indicates bond strength, with higher bond order meaning stronger, more stable bonds.
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The Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The cycle consists of eight sequential steps that generate carbon dioxide and reduce electron carriers like NADH and FADH2, which are then used in the electron transport chain to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The Krebs cycle is a key step in aerobic respiration, allowing organisms to efficiently harvest chemical energy from metabolic fuel molecules.
Review of carbohydrates
Examville.com provides online educational resources like practice tests, live classes, tutoring, study guides, and premium content to help students prepare for exams. The document then reviews carbohydrates, including their classification, structures, functions, examples like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It also discusses topics like glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the biogenic roles of these metabolic pathways.
Review of carbohydrates
Examville.com provides online educational resources like practice tests, live classes, tutoring, study guides, and premium content to help students prepare for exams. The document then reviews carbohydrates, including their classification, structures, functions, examples like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It also discusses topics like glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the biogenic roles of these metabolic pathways.
Glycosaminoglycams+Glycoconjugates (2) final.pptx
This document discusses heteropolysaccharides, which are polysaccharides containing two or more monosaccharide units. It focuses on glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and glycoconjugates. GAGs are heteropolysaccharides found in the extracellular matrix that consist of repeating disaccharide units containing an uronic sugar and an amino sugar. Major GAGs include hyaluronan, keratan sulfate, heparin, and chondroitin sulfate. Glycoconjugates are carbohydrates covalently bonded to proteins, lipids, or other molecules. Major glycoconjugates are glycoproteins, glycolipids, and proteoglycans. Proteoglycans are proteins heavily decorated with GAG
carbohydrate chemistry BOT.pptx
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate chemistry and functions. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, or derivatives. Carbohydrates are classified based on number of saccharide units into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Key monosaccharides like glucose and fructose are discussed in detail, along with their structural properties. Disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and biologically important carbohydrates like mucoproteins are also introduced. The document emphasizes the structural features and roles of carbohydrates in the human body.
Section ii a biochemistry carbohydrate
Carbohydrates are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydric alcohols that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monosaccharide units. Key monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose are formed from two monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds. Polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose are long chains of monosaccharide units that function as energy stores or structural components in plants and animals.
Diabetic dyslipidemia and residual risk by Dr. Vaibhav Yawalkar MD DM Cardiol...
Diabetic dyslipidemia and residual risk by Dr. Vaibhav Yawalkar MD DM Cardiology, Consultant Interventional Cardiologist, Nagpur, MH, India
Carbohydrate
This document summarizes carbohydrates and their classification. It defines glycosidic bonds as bonds that join carbohydrates. It describes oligosaccharides as short polymers of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds, including common disaccharides formed from two monosaccharides like sucrose, lactose, and maltose. It also discusses polysaccharides including storage polysaccharides like starch and glycogen, structural homopolysaccharides like cellulose and chitin, and heteropolysaccharides like peptidoglycan and agar.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate, class of naturally occurring compounds and derivatives formed from them. In the early part of the 19th century, substances such as wood, starch, and linen were found to be composed mainly of molecules containing atoms of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).
Carbohydrate chemistry by Dr Anurag Yadav
The brief classification, types, physical properties, chemical properties, mucopolysaccherides type, disorders related to GAG.
the Topic covered with the interest of MBBS, BDS, BPT, Nursing, Bsc and MSc Biochemistry and MLT students
Carbohydrates (1)
Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their size. Monosaccharides like glucose are the basic units that combine to form larger carbohydrates. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds, such as sucrose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides and include starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Carbohydrates serve important functions in the human body by providing energy, storing energy in the form of glycogen, and acting as dietary fiber for digestive health.
Ch 9 Lipid2.ppt
This document provides an outline for a lecture on lipids and lipoproteins. It begins by defining key terms related to lipids and lipoproteins and describing the different classes of lipids and lipoproteins, including chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, and HDL. It then discusses apolipoproteins and their functions. The document outlines the laboratory procedures for determining lipid and lipoprotein levels and interpreting the results. It also discusses the significance of lipids and lipoproteins in conditions like atherosclerosis.
Chemistry of carbohydrates
1. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their size. Monosaccharides include glucose and fructose.
2. Important carbohydrates include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and dietary sugars like sucrose, lactose, and glucose. Starch is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants while glycogen serves this function in animals.
3. Carbohydrates have several important functions in the body including energy storage, structural roles, and serving as precursors for other biomolecules. They exhibit properties like being water-soluble and capable of undergoing chemical reactions like reduction and oxidation.
2. CARBOHYDRATES.pptx
This document discusses carbohydrates, including their types, structures, compositions, and uses. It begins by defining carbohydrates and their abundance in nature. It then classifies carbohydrates into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides based on their sugar unit composition. The document focuses on monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, and galactose, describing their structures, properties, and important functions. It also discusses disaccharides formed from monosaccharide linkages, such as maltose, lactose, and sucrose. Overall, the document provides a comprehensive overview of carbohydrate classification, structures, and examples.
Carbohydrate ppt
This document provides an overview of carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates as the most abundant organic compounds in plants, acting as energy stores and structural components. It then discusses monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Specific carbohydrates discussed include glucose, fructose, sucrose, maltose, lactose, starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. It explains their structures, functions, and important properties. The document is a comprehensive introduction to carbohydrate chemistry.
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Carbohydrates & Tricarbonic acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
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Diabetic dyslipidemia and residual risk by Dr. Vaibhav Yawalkar MD DM Cardiol...
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Lecture 4-Structure and function of carbohydrates .ppt
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More from Dr Muhammad Mustansar
students session
Students gathered for a session to discuss their studies and plans. Many shared challenges they faced with keeping up with their coursework while balancing other responsibilities. Ideas were exchanged on effective time management strategies and using campus resources to stay on track academically.
Lipid profile
This document provides information about lipid profiles and their normal ranges. It discusses how to collect and process blood specimens for lipid profiles. It then defines the components of a lipid profile including total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and VLDL cholesterol. For each component, it provides the normal ranges and clinical significance of abnormal levels. It also briefly discusses apolipoprotein B, phospholipids, chylomicrons, and factors that can increase or decrease their levels.
Introduction of biochemistry
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the four major macromolecules that make up living things. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches and are used for energy storage. Lipids are composed of fatty acids and glycerol and function in energy storage, protection, and insulation. Proteins contain amino acids and perform a variety of functions including growth, energy production, and pH buffering. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain nucleotides and store and transmit genetic information that directs cellular functions. These macromolecules are formed through dehydration synthesis and broken down through hydrolysis.
BIOCHEMISTRY OF LIPIDS
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, and fat-soluble vitamins. They serve important functions like storing energy, signaling, and as structural components of cell membranes. The document defines lipids and discusses their chemistry, classifications, structures, and biological importance. Key points covered include that lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and include triglycerides, fatty acids, and other compounds.
ECOSANOIDS
Eicosanoids are oxygenation products of arachidonic acid (AA), a polyunsaturated fatty acid found in animal and plant cell membranes. AA is released from membranes by phospholipase A2 and metabolized via either the cyclooxygenase pathway to form prostaglandins, prostacyclin, and thromboxanes, or the lipoxygenase pathway to form leukotrienes. These eicosanoids are involved in various physiological functions including inflammation, smooth muscle tone, blood coagulation, reproduction, and GI secretion. Clinical applications of prostaglandins include female and male reproductive health, inflammation and immunity, gastrointestinal, respiratory, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, ocular health, and cancer.
ROS ANTIOXIDENTS
Aerobic organisms continuously produce reactive free radicals through respiration, metabolism and phagocytosis. Approximately 1-2% of oxygen consumed is converted into superoxide radicals by the respiratory chain, one of the main sources of free radicals in cells. While oxygen is necessary for life, its partial reduction can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that damage living systems. The body has multiple antioxidant defenses to combat ROS, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and vitamin C, which help convert ROS into less reactive species and protect biomolecules from oxidative damage.
LIPID CHEMISTRY
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, and fat-soluble vitamins. They serve important functions like energy storage, signaling, and as structural components of cell membranes. The main classes of lipids are neutral fats/triglycerides (consisting of glycerol and fatty acids), phospholipids, and sterols. Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6 are essential nutrients. Lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and are an important energy source in animals and plants.
Carcinogen
This document discusses carcinogens and cancer. It defines cancer as abnormal cell growth that can invade other tissues and spread to other parts of the body. Carcinogens are substances that can cause cancer. Chemical carcinogens include aromatic hydrocarbons, aromatic amines, and chemicals containing epoxide, organohalogen, and nitroso groups. Carcinogens can damage DNA directly or require metabolic activation. Factors that influence cancer development include dose of exposure, lifestyle factors like smoking, and inherited conditions. Engineering controls, personal protective equipment, hygiene practices, and proper waste disposal can reduce exposure to carcinogens.
Infectious diseases
This document discusses the importance of breastfeeding for infant health and development. It reviews several studies that show breastfeeding reduces the risk of morbidity and mortality from various infectious diseases like diarrhea, otitis media, neonatal sepsis, and respiratory infections. However, in many societies false beliefs interfere with breastfeeding and infants are commonly given prelacteal feeds or mixed feeding instead of being exclusively breastfed. The purpose of the study described is to examine the patterns of infectious diseases in non-breastfed infants compared to breastfed infants admitted to the hospital.
Differences of plasma osmolarity
This document describes a study comparing plasma osmolarity in healthy breastfed and non-breastfed infants. The study included breastfed and non-breastfed infants between 1-6 months of age. Blood samples were collected and analyzed for various biomarkers including glucose, BUN, sodium, potassium, total protein, and albumin levels. Plasma osmolarity was then directly estimated and calculated based on biomarker levels. Results showed breastfed infants had significantly lower glucose, BUN, and plasma osmolarity levels compared to non-breastfed infants. The study concluded breastfeeding provides a lower solute load compared to formula feeding, resulting in lower plasma osmolarity in healthy breastfed infants.
Introdction of metabolism
1. Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that take place in living organisms to sustain life. It includes breaking down nutrients into smaller units and building up complex molecules.
2. Glucose, fats, and proteins are broken down through various pathways to ultimately form acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle to generate energy in the form of ATP. Less oxygen results in lactic acid formation from glucose.
3. The electron transport chain uses oxygen to convert products of the citric acid cycle into large amounts of ATP, the main energy currency of cells. Fatty acids yield more ATP than glucose due to their carbon-hydrogen bonds.
TRINITY COLLEGE ROBOTIC COMPETITION
The Tufts Robotics Club attended the Trinity College Fire Fighting Robot Contest where they won both the team and individual categories of the Olympiad tournament. This marked the club's fourth win since 2014. They competed in both the mechanical robot competition and trivia-based Olympiad. For the robot competition, Tufts engineered a robot that followed the right wall of the maze and used a fire extinguisher to put out a candle, navigating the maze faster than other teams. In the Olympiad, they demonstrated their strong theoretical engineering knowledge, with sophomore Faizan Muhammad winning individually. The success at this competition aims to attract new recruits to the club.
GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST
A glucose tolerance test (GTT) checks how the body metabolizes blood sugar levels over time. There are two main types: an oral GTT where glucose is ingested, and an intravenous GTT where glucose is injected. It is commonly used to screen for prediabetes and diabetes, especially in obese, pregnant, or high-risk individuals. The test involves fasting overnight, then drinking a glucose solution and having blood drawn over 3 hours to analyze the body's insulin response and how quickly glucose is cleared from the blood. Results are interpreted according to WHO criteria, with different glucose level thresholds indicating normal, prediabetes, or diabetes status.
Conference proceedings
This document summarizes a study that compares the performance of two state observers - a sliding mode observer with super-twisting algorithm (STSMO) and a high gain observer (HGO) - for estimating unmeasured states of a quadrotor UAV. The paper designs each observer and then applies a second order sliding mode control technique using the estimated states to control the quadrotor. Simulations show the performance of each observer under the same control scheme and perturbations. The study aims to compare the observers' characteristics for state estimation of the quadrotor system to determine the best observer for real-time applications given system uncertainties and noise.
social media useage
This study examined the usage of social media by students at the FJMU Lahore. A questionnaire was distributed to 415 students to gather data on their social media usage patterns and behaviors. The results found that 95.9% of students used social media daily, with 77% spending 1-2 hours per day on social media. Major purposes of usage were communication (94%) and entertainment (93%), though 46% also used it for studying. Students reported social media could waste time and distract from studies, but could also be useful for sharing medical videos, knowledge and study guidelines. The study concludes social media distracts students and encourages more non-educational activities, so students should utilize it more for academic purposes and limit entertainment usage
DR MUHAMMAD MUSTANSAR
Dr. Muhammad Mustansar has achieved international recognition for his work. He holds a world record and has had his research published in international posters and books. His accomplishments demonstrate expertise in his field at a global level.
STAINING TECHINIQUES
This document provides instructions for several histopathology staining techniques, including:
- Periodic Acid Schiff (PAS) staining for polysaccharides and basement membranes in magenta.
- Gram-Twort modification for staining bacteria in paraffin sections in blue-black (Gram positive) and pink (Gram negative).
- Ziehl-Neelsen technique for staining acid-fast bacilli like Mycobacterium tuberculosis red against a blue background.
It also describes the Periodic Acid Schiff/Alcian Blue dual stain to differentiate acid mucins (blue) from neutral mucins and carbohydrates (magenta). Precise protocols and reagent preparations are provided for accurate histological analysis.
Histopathology
This document provides information on various histopathology staining techniques. It describes the steps for taking paraffin sections to water, dehydrating and clearing sections in xylene, blotting sections dry, and mounting sections. It also details procedures for Ziehl-Neelsen staining for acid-fast bacilli, Gram-Twort staining for bacteria, Periodic acid Schiff staining, Periodic acid Schiff/Alcian blue staining, and the buffered Congo red method for amyloid. Precise reagents and safety notes are included for each technique.
Lactation
This document discusses guidelines for drug use during lactation. It begins by outlining principles from the Quran and Hadith regarding breastfeeding. It then discusses anatomy related to lactation and hormonal regulation. Guidelines for chemotherapy during lactation emphasize using drugs with minimal infant exposure and avoiding unnecessary drugs. Several classes of drugs are discussed, identifying those that are generally safe to use during lactation like beta-blockers, thiazides, ACE inhibitors, warfarin, inhaled asthma medications, and corticosteroids. Drugs that should be avoided include phenobarbital, primodone, and clonazepam. The document also covers stimulants and inhibitors of lactation.
More from Dr Muhammad Mustansar (20)
Polysaccharides
- 9. Oligosaccharide groups are incorporated in to many drug structures
- 10. Polysaccharides
- 12. Iodine binding to starch
- 13. glycogen
- 14. Dextrans
- 15. Cellulose
- 16. Cellulose vs Amylose Amylose Cellulose Glucose units rotated 180o relative to next residue
- 17. Cellulose
- 18. Chitin
- 20. Glycoproteins
- 22. Blood ABO Antigens • Structure of the ABO blood group carbohydrates, R represents the linkage to protein in the secreted forms, sphingolipid in the cell-surface bound form • open square = GlcNAc, open diamond = galactose, filled square = fucose, filled diamond = GalNAc, filled diamond = sialic acid (NANA)