Capital budgeting refers to the long-term planning process used to evaluate proposed major investments and capital expenditures. It involves evaluating potential capital projects and determining which projects to invest in. The key methods used to evaluate projects include payback period, net present value, internal rate of return, and profitability index. Payback period is a simple and widely used traditional method that measures the time required for the cash inflows from a project to repay the initial cash outlay. However, it ignores cash flows beyond the payback period. More sophisticated discounted cash flow methods like net present value and internal rate of return are better as they consider the timing of all cash flows and investment cost of capital.
This document provides an overview of capital budgeting. It defines capital budgeting as the planning process used to determine long-term investments worth funding through a firm's capital structure. The document outlines the importance, process, techniques and acceptance criteria for capital budgeting. It describes techniques like payback period, accounting rate of return, net present value and profitability index. The overview emphasizes that capital budgeting decisions require consideration of factors like profitability, risk and cash flows over long time horizons.
A simple and comprehensive presentation on Profit maximization v/s Wealth Maximization.
By Arvinder Pal Kaur
Faculty of Management
Northwest Group of Institutions
Dhudhike, MOGA
This document discusses different types of leverage used in business. There are three main types: operating leverage, financial leverage, and combined leverage. Operating leverage measures how fixed costs affect operating profit with changes in sales. Financial leverage shows how interest expenses affect net income. Combined leverage considers both operating and financial leverage and their combined impact on earnings per share with sales changes. The degree of each type of leverage can be calculated to understand the risk involved at different levels.
Walter's model states that a company's dividend policy impacts its valuation, with higher-dividend companies valued more than lower- or no-dividend companies. The model uses two factors - dividend payout ratio and the relationship between internal rate of return and cost of capital - in its valuation formula. The formula calculates share price as the present value of infinite dividend and retained earnings flows. The model implies different optimal payout ratios depending on a company's growth phase: 0% for growth companies, no optimum for normal companies, and 100% for declining companies.
The document discusses dividend policy and provides details about:
1. The meaning of dividend and dividend policy, and factors that affect dividend policy such as ownership considerations, nature of business, and investment opportunities.
2. Different types of dividends including cash dividend, stock dividend, property dividend, and debenture dividend.
3. Dividend policies of 5 major Indian IT companies - Tata Consultancy Services, Wipro, Infosys, HCL Technologies, and Larsen & Toubro Infotech - and their dividend yields for the fiscal year 2013.
The document provides solved problems related to calculating cost of capital. It includes examples of calculating cost of debt, cost of preference shares, and weighted average cost of capital (WACC) for companies based on information about their capital structure, dividend rates, issue prices of securities, tax rates, and other financial details. The problems cover a range of scenarios and teach the methodology for determining the effective cost of different sources of capital and the overall WACC.
The document discusses the cost of capital. It defines cost of capital as the minimum return expected by investors for providing capital to a company. It includes the costs of debt, equity, preference shares, and retained earnings. The weighted average cost of capital takes the costs of different sources of capital weighted by their proportions. Calculating cost of capital is important for capital budgeting and evaluating new projects and investments.
This document discusses capital structure and financial markets, specifically the primary market. It defines the primary market as the market for new issuers, where companies can directly issue shares, bonds, or other securities to raise capital. The document outlines the key participants and processes in the primary market in Nepal, including requirements for disclosure, underwriting, and issue procedures that must follow the Company Act and SEBON guidelines. Overall, the primary market provides an important channel for companies and governments to raise funds for investment and growth.
This document provides an overview of capital budgeting. It defines capital budgeting as the planning process used to determine long-term investments worth funding through a firm's capital structure. The document outlines the importance, process, techniques and acceptance criteria for capital budgeting. It describes techniques like payback period, accounting rate of return, net present value and profitability index. The overview emphasizes that capital budgeting decisions require consideration of factors like profitability, risk and cash flows over long time horizons.
A simple and comprehensive presentation on Profit maximization v/s Wealth Maximization.
By Arvinder Pal Kaur
Faculty of Management
Northwest Group of Institutions
Dhudhike, MOGA
This document discusses different types of leverage used in business. There are three main types: operating leverage, financial leverage, and combined leverage. Operating leverage measures how fixed costs affect operating profit with changes in sales. Financial leverage shows how interest expenses affect net income. Combined leverage considers both operating and financial leverage and their combined impact on earnings per share with sales changes. The degree of each type of leverage can be calculated to understand the risk involved at different levels.
Walter's model states that a company's dividend policy impacts its valuation, with higher-dividend companies valued more than lower- or no-dividend companies. The model uses two factors - dividend payout ratio and the relationship between internal rate of return and cost of capital - in its valuation formula. The formula calculates share price as the present value of infinite dividend and retained earnings flows. The model implies different optimal payout ratios depending on a company's growth phase: 0% for growth companies, no optimum for normal companies, and 100% for declining companies.
The document discusses dividend policy and provides details about:
1. The meaning of dividend and dividend policy, and factors that affect dividend policy such as ownership considerations, nature of business, and investment opportunities.
2. Different types of dividends including cash dividend, stock dividend, property dividend, and debenture dividend.
3. Dividend policies of 5 major Indian IT companies - Tata Consultancy Services, Wipro, Infosys, HCL Technologies, and Larsen & Toubro Infotech - and their dividend yields for the fiscal year 2013.
The document provides solved problems related to calculating cost of capital. It includes examples of calculating cost of debt, cost of preference shares, and weighted average cost of capital (WACC) for companies based on information about their capital structure, dividend rates, issue prices of securities, tax rates, and other financial details. The problems cover a range of scenarios and teach the methodology for determining the effective cost of different sources of capital and the overall WACC.
The document discusses the cost of capital. It defines cost of capital as the minimum return expected by investors for providing capital to a company. It includes the costs of debt, equity, preference shares, and retained earnings. The weighted average cost of capital takes the costs of different sources of capital weighted by their proportions. Calculating cost of capital is important for capital budgeting and evaluating new projects and investments.
This document discusses capital structure and financial markets, specifically the primary market. It defines the primary market as the market for new issuers, where companies can directly issue shares, bonds, or other securities to raise capital. The document outlines the key participants and processes in the primary market in Nepal, including requirements for disclosure, underwriting, and issue procedures that must follow the Company Act and SEBON guidelines. Overall, the primary market provides an important channel for companies and governments to raise funds for investment and growth.
The study analyzed the impact of working capital management on the profitability of 58 small manufacturing firms in Mauritius over the period of 1998-2003. The results showed that return on total assets, a measure of profitability, was positively correlated with measures of working capital management efficiency like accounts receivable days and cash conversion cycle. However, it was negatively correlated with accounts payable days. The paper concluded that synchronizing current assets and liabilities is important for small firm profitability and the paper industry showed best practices in working capital management.
This analysis is an important tool used to optimize the capital structure for highest earnings for shareholders
It helps in understanding the sensitivity of EPS at given level of Earning before Interest & Tax under different sources of financing
It helps in analyzing how capital structure decision is important to raise the value of firm
An optimal financing structure minimizes the cost of capital and maximizes the earnings
Earning Per Share under different Capital structure plans
Plan 1 ( Only Equity Shares )
EPS = (EBIT (1−Tax rate))/(No. of Outstanding Shares)
Plan 2 ( Equity Shares & Debt )
EPS = ((EBIT −Interest) (1−Tax rate))/(No. of Outstanding Shares)
Plan 3 (Equity, Debt & Preference Shares)
EPS = ((EBIT −Interest) (1−Tax rate)−Pref. Dividend)/(No. of Outstanding Shares)
Plan 4 (Equity shares & Preference Shares)
EPS = (EBIT (1−Tax rate)−Pref. Dividend)/(No. of Outstanding Shares)
Thank You For Waching
Subscribe to DevTech Finance
This document discusses capital budgeting and provides examples of how to evaluate capital investment projects. It defines capital budgeting as the process of analyzing projects and deciding which ones to include in the capital budget. It then outlines eight key steps in capital budgeting, including project categorization, evaluation criteria, and financial analysis. Examples are provided to calculate metrics like net present value, internal rate of return, payback period, and profitability index for a sample capital project. The document concludes that while net present value is generally the best method, companies often consider multiple evaluation criteria to make capital budgeting decisions.
This document discusses project life cycle costing. It defines project life cycle costing as accounting for all costs associated with acquiring, using, maintaining, and disposing of an asset over its useful life. It identifies the main categories of costs as initial, operating, and disposal costs. Initial costs include acquisition, installation, and staff training. Operating costs include maintenance, materials handling, and staff training. Disposal costs include demolishing and removing the asset at the end of its life. The document provides an example and discusses optimizing project life cycle costs by defining objectives, planning schedules and resources, executing, and closing out the project.
This document discusses factors that affect a company's capital structure. It defines capital structure as how a firm finances its operations through various sources of funds such as debt, equity, short-term debt, and other financing options. It then lists 14 factors that influence a company's capital structure decisions, including control interests of shareholders, risks, tax considerations, cost of capital, flexibility, investors' attitudes, legal provisions, growth rate, market conditions, profitability, floatation costs, cost of debt, cost of equity capital, and government policies. Maintaining an optimal capital structure is important for balancing business risks and maximizing shareholder value.
This document provides an overview of leasing. It discusses the history and meaning of leasing, including definitions from experts. It outlines the steps in a typical leasing process and describes various types of leases. The advantages to lessors include assured regular income, preservation of ownership, tax benefits, and high profitability. Advantages to lessees are use of capital goods, tax benefits, cheaper financing, and technical assistance. Disadvantages are also presented, such as inflation risk for lessors and compulsory payments even if the asset is not needed for lessees. In summary, the document defines leasing, outlines the leasing process, and discusses the pros and cons from the perspectives of both lessors and les
The document discusses capital structure and its theories. It defines capital structure as the proportion of long-term debt and equity used to finance a company's assets. A company's capital structure determines its risk and cost of capital. There are several theories on capital structure including the net income, net operating income, traditional, and Modigliani-Miller approaches. The optimal capital structure balances minimum costs and risks. Factors like tax rates, control, flexibility, and legal requirements influence a company's choice of capital structure.
This document discusses various capital budgeting techniques, including traditional non-discounting methods like payback period and accounting rate of return, as well as modern discounting techniques like net present value, internal rate of return, and profitability index. It provides formulas and steps for calculating each technique, discusses their advantages and disadvantages, and provides decision criteria for evaluating projects.
The document discusses the cost of capital, which is the rate of return a firm requires to increase its market value. It has three components: return at zero risk, business risk premium, and financial risk premium. Cost of capital is classified as historical vs future, specific vs composite, average vs marginal, and explicit vs implicit. Specific costs include cost of debt, preference shares, equity shares, and retained earnings. Composite cost is the weighted average cost of different sources. Cost of capital is computed using book value weights or market value weights to determine the weighted average cost of capital (WACC).
This document provides an overview of leasing and lease financing. It defines what a lease is and discusses the key aspects of lease agreements such as rental payments, maintenance clauses, cancellation provisions, renewal and purchase options.
It distinguishes between operating leases and finance/capital leases. Operating leases are typically short-term while finance leases are longer-term and transfer most of the risks and rewards of ownership to the lessee.
The document also covers the different methods of lease financing including sales-leasebacks, direct leases, and leveraged leases. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of lease financing for both lessees and lessors. Finally, it compares long-term debt versus leasing
Working capital refers to a company's short-term assets and liabilities. There are two main concepts of working capital - gross working capital, which is the total investment in current assets, and net working capital, which is the difference between current assets and current liabilities. A company's working capital requirements are determined by factors like its nature of business, production cycle, and seasonal needs. There are different approaches to financing working capital, including the hedging approach of matching debt maturities to needs, the conservative approach of financing all current assets with long-term debt, and the aggressive approach of relying more on short-term debt.
Fee based financial services allow institutions to earn income through fees, dividends, and brokerage from specialized operations. Some examples include credit cards which charge interest for short term borrowing, debit cards which allow direct access to bank accounts for purchases and withdrawals, smart cards which store and transact data via an embedded computer chip, automated teller machines which allow customers to access accounts and perform banking without a teller, and safe deposit lockers which provide secure storage of valuables in a bank vault.
This presentation discusses the application of marginal costing techniques in decision making. It begins by defining marginal costing as the ascertainment of marginal costs and the effect on profit of changes in output volumes or types by differentiating between fixed and variable costs. Only variable costs are assigned to products, while fixed costs are written off against profits. The presentation then provides examples of how marginal costing can be applied to problems like key factor analysis, price fixation, make-or-buy decisions, product mix selection, and more. It also discusses a case study on applying marginal costing to analyze an agro-tourism business model and the impacts of COVID-19 on the tourism industry.
The Concept
A stable strategy arises out of a basic perception by the management that the firm should concentrate on using its present resources for developing its competitive strength in particular market areas.
In simple words, stability strategy refers to the company’s policy of continuing the same business and with the same objectives
A firm pursues stability strategy when
1. It continues to serve the public in the same product or service, market, and function sectors as defined in its business definition.
2. Its main strategic decisions focus on incremental improvement of functional performance.
2. Corporate Restructuring is the process of redesigning one or more aspects of a company.
3. The process of reorganizing a company may be implemented due to a number of different factors, such as positioning the company to be more competitive, surviving a currently adverse economic climate, or acting on the self confidence of the corporation to move in an entirely new direction.
This document discusses optimal capital structure and includes the following key points:
1. An optimal capital structure maximizes a company's market value while minimizing the cost of capital by striking a balance between risk and return. It occurs when the market price per share is at its maximum and cost of capital is at its minimum.
2. Several illustrations are provided to demonstrate how changes in the debt-equity mix impact total market value and overall cost of capital. Adding more debt initially increases value but can eventually increase costs if debt levels rise too high.
3. The document also defines capital structure, lists some features of an optimal structure, and outlines several theories of capital structure, including the Net Income Approach and Modigl
The document discusses working capital management. It defines working capital as the excess of current assets over current liabilities, representing the funds available to run day-to-day operations. It notes that working capital management involves managing current assets like cash, debtors, and inventory as well as current liabilities like creditors. Proper working capital management is important for business liquidity, profitability, and survival, especially in today's competitive environment. The key steps in working capital management include cash management, debtors management, inventory management, and creditors management.
This document provides an overview of venture capital financing in India. It defines venture capital as money provided by outside investors to finance new, growing, or troubled businesses in exchange for equity. It then discusses the various stages of venture capital funding including early stage, expansion, and acquisition/buyout financing. The rest of the document outlines the venture capital investment process, including deal origination, screening, evaluation, deal structuring, post-investment activities, and exit planning. It also provides examples of venture capital funding deals in India and lists the top 5 early stage venture capital firms in the country.
The Tandon Committee was appointed in 1974 by the Reserve Bank of India to frame guidelines for bank credit and oversight. Some key recommendations included introducing the concept of maximum permissible bank finance (MPBF) to determine how much working capital banks could finance. The committee outlined three methods for calculating MPBF that progressively reduced banks' involvement in financing current assets. It also made recommendations regarding the style of credit and information reporting systems to improve oversight of credit use.
The document discusses capital budgeting techniques for evaluating long-term investment projects. It covers the payback period method, net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and profitability index. It also discusses circumstances where methods may conflict and how to select the appropriate method. The case study at the end analyzes a machinery replacement project using NPV and IRR to determine if the new equipment should be purchased.
Capital budgeting refers to the process of evaluating investment projects and determining whether they should be accepted or rejected. There are traditional and discounted cash flow methods for evaluating projects. Traditional methods include payback period and accounting rate of return, which do not consider the time value of money. Discounted cash flow methods like net present value (NPV) and internal rate of return (IRR) discount future cash flows to determine if a project will provide sufficient returns. The capital budgeting process involves project generation, evaluation using techniques like NPV or IRR, and selection of projects that meet acceptance criteria.
The study analyzed the impact of working capital management on the profitability of 58 small manufacturing firms in Mauritius over the period of 1998-2003. The results showed that return on total assets, a measure of profitability, was positively correlated with measures of working capital management efficiency like accounts receivable days and cash conversion cycle. However, it was negatively correlated with accounts payable days. The paper concluded that synchronizing current assets and liabilities is important for small firm profitability and the paper industry showed best practices in working capital management.
This analysis is an important tool used to optimize the capital structure for highest earnings for shareholders
It helps in understanding the sensitivity of EPS at given level of Earning before Interest & Tax under different sources of financing
It helps in analyzing how capital structure decision is important to raise the value of firm
An optimal financing structure minimizes the cost of capital and maximizes the earnings
Earning Per Share under different Capital structure plans
Plan 1 ( Only Equity Shares )
EPS = (EBIT (1−Tax rate))/(No. of Outstanding Shares)
Plan 2 ( Equity Shares & Debt )
EPS = ((EBIT −Interest) (1−Tax rate))/(No. of Outstanding Shares)
Plan 3 (Equity, Debt & Preference Shares)
EPS = ((EBIT −Interest) (1−Tax rate)−Pref. Dividend)/(No. of Outstanding Shares)
Plan 4 (Equity shares & Preference Shares)
EPS = (EBIT (1−Tax rate)−Pref. Dividend)/(No. of Outstanding Shares)
Thank You For Waching
Subscribe to DevTech Finance
This document discusses capital budgeting and provides examples of how to evaluate capital investment projects. It defines capital budgeting as the process of analyzing projects and deciding which ones to include in the capital budget. It then outlines eight key steps in capital budgeting, including project categorization, evaluation criteria, and financial analysis. Examples are provided to calculate metrics like net present value, internal rate of return, payback period, and profitability index for a sample capital project. The document concludes that while net present value is generally the best method, companies often consider multiple evaluation criteria to make capital budgeting decisions.
This document discusses project life cycle costing. It defines project life cycle costing as accounting for all costs associated with acquiring, using, maintaining, and disposing of an asset over its useful life. It identifies the main categories of costs as initial, operating, and disposal costs. Initial costs include acquisition, installation, and staff training. Operating costs include maintenance, materials handling, and staff training. Disposal costs include demolishing and removing the asset at the end of its life. The document provides an example and discusses optimizing project life cycle costs by defining objectives, planning schedules and resources, executing, and closing out the project.
This document discusses factors that affect a company's capital structure. It defines capital structure as how a firm finances its operations through various sources of funds such as debt, equity, short-term debt, and other financing options. It then lists 14 factors that influence a company's capital structure decisions, including control interests of shareholders, risks, tax considerations, cost of capital, flexibility, investors' attitudes, legal provisions, growth rate, market conditions, profitability, floatation costs, cost of debt, cost of equity capital, and government policies. Maintaining an optimal capital structure is important for balancing business risks and maximizing shareholder value.
This document provides an overview of leasing. It discusses the history and meaning of leasing, including definitions from experts. It outlines the steps in a typical leasing process and describes various types of leases. The advantages to lessors include assured regular income, preservation of ownership, tax benefits, and high profitability. Advantages to lessees are use of capital goods, tax benefits, cheaper financing, and technical assistance. Disadvantages are also presented, such as inflation risk for lessors and compulsory payments even if the asset is not needed for lessees. In summary, the document defines leasing, outlines the leasing process, and discusses the pros and cons from the perspectives of both lessors and les
The document discusses capital structure and its theories. It defines capital structure as the proportion of long-term debt and equity used to finance a company's assets. A company's capital structure determines its risk and cost of capital. There are several theories on capital structure including the net income, net operating income, traditional, and Modigliani-Miller approaches. The optimal capital structure balances minimum costs and risks. Factors like tax rates, control, flexibility, and legal requirements influence a company's choice of capital structure.
This document discusses various capital budgeting techniques, including traditional non-discounting methods like payback period and accounting rate of return, as well as modern discounting techniques like net present value, internal rate of return, and profitability index. It provides formulas and steps for calculating each technique, discusses their advantages and disadvantages, and provides decision criteria for evaluating projects.
The document discusses the cost of capital, which is the rate of return a firm requires to increase its market value. It has three components: return at zero risk, business risk premium, and financial risk premium. Cost of capital is classified as historical vs future, specific vs composite, average vs marginal, and explicit vs implicit. Specific costs include cost of debt, preference shares, equity shares, and retained earnings. Composite cost is the weighted average cost of different sources. Cost of capital is computed using book value weights or market value weights to determine the weighted average cost of capital (WACC).
This document provides an overview of leasing and lease financing. It defines what a lease is and discusses the key aspects of lease agreements such as rental payments, maintenance clauses, cancellation provisions, renewal and purchase options.
It distinguishes between operating leases and finance/capital leases. Operating leases are typically short-term while finance leases are longer-term and transfer most of the risks and rewards of ownership to the lessee.
The document also covers the different methods of lease financing including sales-leasebacks, direct leases, and leveraged leases. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of lease financing for both lessees and lessors. Finally, it compares long-term debt versus leasing
Working capital refers to a company's short-term assets and liabilities. There are two main concepts of working capital - gross working capital, which is the total investment in current assets, and net working capital, which is the difference between current assets and current liabilities. A company's working capital requirements are determined by factors like its nature of business, production cycle, and seasonal needs. There are different approaches to financing working capital, including the hedging approach of matching debt maturities to needs, the conservative approach of financing all current assets with long-term debt, and the aggressive approach of relying more on short-term debt.
Fee based financial services allow institutions to earn income through fees, dividends, and brokerage from specialized operations. Some examples include credit cards which charge interest for short term borrowing, debit cards which allow direct access to bank accounts for purchases and withdrawals, smart cards which store and transact data via an embedded computer chip, automated teller machines which allow customers to access accounts and perform banking without a teller, and safe deposit lockers which provide secure storage of valuables in a bank vault.
This presentation discusses the application of marginal costing techniques in decision making. It begins by defining marginal costing as the ascertainment of marginal costs and the effect on profit of changes in output volumes or types by differentiating between fixed and variable costs. Only variable costs are assigned to products, while fixed costs are written off against profits. The presentation then provides examples of how marginal costing can be applied to problems like key factor analysis, price fixation, make-or-buy decisions, product mix selection, and more. It also discusses a case study on applying marginal costing to analyze an agro-tourism business model and the impacts of COVID-19 on the tourism industry.
The Concept
A stable strategy arises out of a basic perception by the management that the firm should concentrate on using its present resources for developing its competitive strength in particular market areas.
In simple words, stability strategy refers to the company’s policy of continuing the same business and with the same objectives
A firm pursues stability strategy when
1. It continues to serve the public in the same product or service, market, and function sectors as defined in its business definition.
2. Its main strategic decisions focus on incremental improvement of functional performance.
2. Corporate Restructuring is the process of redesigning one or more aspects of a company.
3. The process of reorganizing a company may be implemented due to a number of different factors, such as positioning the company to be more competitive, surviving a currently adverse economic climate, or acting on the self confidence of the corporation to move in an entirely new direction.
This document discusses optimal capital structure and includes the following key points:
1. An optimal capital structure maximizes a company's market value while minimizing the cost of capital by striking a balance between risk and return. It occurs when the market price per share is at its maximum and cost of capital is at its minimum.
2. Several illustrations are provided to demonstrate how changes in the debt-equity mix impact total market value and overall cost of capital. Adding more debt initially increases value but can eventually increase costs if debt levels rise too high.
3. The document also defines capital structure, lists some features of an optimal structure, and outlines several theories of capital structure, including the Net Income Approach and Modigl
The document discusses working capital management. It defines working capital as the excess of current assets over current liabilities, representing the funds available to run day-to-day operations. It notes that working capital management involves managing current assets like cash, debtors, and inventory as well as current liabilities like creditors. Proper working capital management is important for business liquidity, profitability, and survival, especially in today's competitive environment. The key steps in working capital management include cash management, debtors management, inventory management, and creditors management.
This document provides an overview of venture capital financing in India. It defines venture capital as money provided by outside investors to finance new, growing, or troubled businesses in exchange for equity. It then discusses the various stages of venture capital funding including early stage, expansion, and acquisition/buyout financing. The rest of the document outlines the venture capital investment process, including deal origination, screening, evaluation, deal structuring, post-investment activities, and exit planning. It also provides examples of venture capital funding deals in India and lists the top 5 early stage venture capital firms in the country.
The Tandon Committee was appointed in 1974 by the Reserve Bank of India to frame guidelines for bank credit and oversight. Some key recommendations included introducing the concept of maximum permissible bank finance (MPBF) to determine how much working capital banks could finance. The committee outlined three methods for calculating MPBF that progressively reduced banks' involvement in financing current assets. It also made recommendations regarding the style of credit and information reporting systems to improve oversight of credit use.
The document discusses capital budgeting techniques for evaluating long-term investment projects. It covers the payback period method, net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and profitability index. It also discusses circumstances where methods may conflict and how to select the appropriate method. The case study at the end analyzes a machinery replacement project using NPV and IRR to determine if the new equipment should be purchased.
Capital budgeting refers to the process of evaluating investment projects and determining whether they should be accepted or rejected. There are traditional and discounted cash flow methods for evaluating projects. Traditional methods include payback period and accounting rate of return, which do not consider the time value of money. Discounted cash flow methods like net present value (NPV) and internal rate of return (IRR) discount future cash flows to determine if a project will provide sufficient returns. The capital budgeting process involves project generation, evaluation using techniques like NPV or IRR, and selection of projects that meet acceptance criteria.
Capital budgeting ppt@ bec doms on financeBabasab Patil
Capital budgeting involves planning for large long-term expenditures on projects. Projects can be replacements, expansions, or new ventures with increasing risk levels. The key steps are analyzing cash flows, costs of capital, and techniques like payback period, net present value (NPV), and internal rate of return (IRR) to evaluate projects. NPV is preferred over IRR when they conflict. Methods like replacement chain and equivalent annual annuity address unequal project lives in comparisons. Capital may also be rationed with constrained maximization.
Capital budgeting is the process of evaluating long-term investment projects and determining whether they are worth funding through debt, equity, or retained earnings. It involves estimating future cash flows of potential projects, evaluating them using techniques like net present value, and choosing projects that increase shareholder value and have returns higher than the company's cost of capital. The objectives of capital budgeting include setting investment priorities, purchasing assets that generate positive returns, aligning investments with marketing plans, keeping pace with projected growth, and maintaining an optimal debt level.
This document provides sample questions, answers, and examples related to capital budgeting techniques. It includes calculations of net present value and internal rate of return for projects with cash inflows and outflows occurring over several years. It also discusses incorporating risk into capital budgeting analysis using methods like discount rates and coefficient of variation.
The document discusses capital budgeting, which refers to the process of evaluating long-term investment projects. It describes the various techniques used to evaluate capital budgeting proposals, including non-discounting methods like payback period and accounting rate of return, as well as discounted cash flow methods like net present value, internal rate of return, and profitability index. The stages of the capital budgeting process and sources of financing for capital budgeting decisions are also outlined.
The document discusses capital budgeting and methods for evaluating investment projects such as net present value (NPV) and internal rate of return (IRR). It explains that NPV is the best method for choosing between mutually exclusive projects as it accounts for the time value of money and assumes cash flows are reinvested at the opportunity cost of capital. The document also introduces the modified internal rate of return (MIRR) as an alternative to IRR that makes the same reinvestment rate assumption as NPV.
This document contains 19 capital budgeting problems involving calculation of various metrics like payback period, net present value, internal rate of return, and recommendations for project selection. The tasks involve machinery purchase decisions, pipeline installation proposals, and evaluating investment alternatives using discounted cash flow techniques.
Net present Value, Internal Rate Of Return, Profitability Index, Payback, dis...Akhil Sabu
This document discusses various capital budgeting techniques used to evaluate investment projects, including:
1. Discounted cash flow methods like net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and profitability index (PI).
2. Non-discounted cash flow methods like payback period, discounted payback period, and accounting rate of return (ARR).
It provides formulas, examples, and decision rules for calculating each method and comparing investment opportunities.
Capital Budgeting is about how one should evaluate the financing options based on the superior financial performance through mathematical techniques. These techniques have been discussed in the presentation in detail.
Capital budgeting for new product penetratation Dr. Kyi Tha Htun
It is the complete study and report of Capital Budgeting of New Product ( Paper Dyestuff , Poly Aluminum Chloride (PAC) , Blue Water Discoloring (BWD) ) to penetrate into Myanmar Market. It consist of Product Description, Capital Budgeting, Financial Analysis, Financial Feasibility , Cash Flow Analysis and Sensitivity Analysis. It is developed by Dr Kyi Tha Htun, Dr Myint Myat Maung Maung, Nang Ngurn Sandar Myat, Nay Chi Oo, Han Nwe Oo and Win Pa Pa Tun . We hope to get your citation if needed. Thanks
This document contains solutions to problems involving capital budgeting techniques. Problem P9-11 involves calculating the internal rate of return (IRR) for three projects - Project A has an IRR of 17%, Project B has an IRR between 8-9% (calculator solution of 8.62%), and Project C has an IRR between 25-26% (calculator solution of 25.41%). The IRR is the discount rate that makes the net present value of cash flows equal to zero. It is used to evaluate mutually exclusive projects and determine the maximum cost of capital for project acceptability.
The document discusses capital budgeting, which refers to investment decisions organizations make regarding large capital projects or assets. It covers several key aspects of capital budgeting including: the importance of these decisions given factors like large amounts of money involved and long-term impact; various capital budgeting techniques used to evaluate projects like payback period, net present value (NPV), and internal rate of return (IRR); and how to apply these techniques to calculate metrics and determine which projects to accept.
The document discusses various capital budgeting and investment appraisal methods used to evaluate long-term investment projects. It defines capital budgeting as the formal process of planning and acquiring capital assets and explains why it is important. Several evaluation techniques are covered, including payback period, net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and accounting rate of return. The key criteria for accepting or rejecting projects using these methods are also provided.
The document discusses capital budgeting, which refers to long-term planning for proposed capital expenditures and their financing. Capital budgeting involves a firm's formal process of acquiring and investing in capital assets. It deals with evaluating long-term investment projects and allocating scarce financial resources among market opportunities. The nature of capital budgeting is that it involves huge investments in fixed assets for long terms that cannot be easily reversed or withdrawn. It is an important tool for financial management and business success depends on how resources are utilized through capital budgeting.
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to capital budgeting decisions, including definitions of capital budgeting, cash flows, time value of money, present value, and compound interest. It discusses discounted cash flow models and techniques for evaluating capital projects, including net present value, internal rate of return, payback period, and accounting rate of return. Sample problems demonstrate how to apply these techniques to evaluate potential capital investments.
This document discusses the concept of validity in psychological testing and research. It provides definitions of validity from authoritative sources like the American Psychological Association. It distinguishes between different types of validity like construct validity, content validity, criterion validity, predictive validity, concurrent validity, and experimental validity which includes statistical conclusion validity, internal validity, external validity, and ecological validity. The relationships between these types of validity are explored in depth through multiple examples and implications. The document emphasizes that validity is based on evidence and theory and concerns the appropriate interpretation and use of test scores rather than a test itself. It is an important concept to ensure research methods accurately measure the constructs they are intended to measure.
This document discusses various accounting metrics used for managerial decision making, including:
1. Operating assets are assets necessary to run the business, divided into current and long-term assets. Non-operating assets are above operational needs.
2. Net operating working capital and operating long-term assets together make up total operating capital. Free cash flow is available for investors after investing in operating capital.
3. Metrics like net operating profit after tax, return on invested capital, market value added and economic value added are used to evaluate performance and value creation beyond traditional accounting measures.
1. Toppo, a recent graduate of IIM Ahmadabad, had just joined his family's small business. After observing Toppo for a week, his father criticized him for being "too nice" to the employees, saying this approach does not work.
2. The case examines Microsoft's dividend policy over time, including paying dividends through debt to avoid impacting its credit rating, despite having large cash reserves.
3. Minority shareholders initially opposed Vineet Nayyar's proposal to merge Mahindra Satyam with Tech Mahindra due to unattractive valuations and share exchange ratios. Both companies had global operations but issues remained unresolved.
This document provides an overview of capital budgeting techniques including NPV, IRR, MIRR, payback period, and profitability index. It discusses evaluating independent and mutually exclusive projects, dealing with normal and non-normal cash flows, and economic versus physical project life. Key points covered include using NPV profiles to evaluate projects, handling multiple IRRs, and putting projects on a common basis for comparison using techniques like replication chains.
The document is a project report submitted by Rutuja Deepak Chudnaik for their M.Com degree. The report focuses on comparing the Payback Method and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Method for capital budgeting and investment decisions. The report includes an introduction to capital budgeting, the objectives and basic principles. It also provides details on the calculation of payback period for projects with constant and uneven cash flows. The report is submitted to the University of Mumbai under the guidance of their project guide, Prof. Dhiren Kanabar.
The document discusses capital budgeting and investment project evaluation. It defines capital budgeting as evaluating long-term investment proposals to maximize investor wealth. The key steps in the capital budgeting process are planning potential investments, evaluating proposals using techniques like NPV and IRR, selecting projects, implementing, controlling, and reviewing projects. Cash flows, including initial investments, interim cash flows, and terminal cash flows, are crucial to accurately evaluate projects. The document provides examples of calculating relevant cash flows for capital budgeting analysis.
The document discusses capital budgeting and various capital budgeting techniques. It begins by defining capital budgeting as the process of making long-term investment decisions regarding projects with benefits expected over several years. It then discusses various capital budgeting methods including traditional non-discounting methods like payback period and accounting rate of return as well as modern discounting methods like net present value, internal rate of return, and profitability index. Specific examples are provided to demonstrate how to use the payback period and accounting rate of return methods to evaluate investment projects.
The document discusses capital budgeting, which refers to a company's process of making investment decisions in long-term assets or projects. It covers the objectives, types, and process of capital budgeting decisions. Some key points:
- Capital budgeting decisions are among the most important financial decisions as they impact a company's future profitability and growth.
- The capital budgeting process involves generating investment proposals, estimating cash flows, evaluating proposals using methods like NPV or IRR, selecting projects, and reviewing projects after completion.
- Traditional methods like payback period and accounting rate of return do not consider the time value of money, while modern discounted cash flow methods like NPV and IRR do.
This document discusses capital budgeting and investment decision making. It begins by defining capital budgeting as the process of evaluating investment opportunities that require large capital outlays and have benefits received over many years in the future. The document then outlines the capital budgeting process, which includes identifying investment opportunities, evaluating proposals, selecting the most profitable project, allocating funding, and reviewing performance after completion. Finally, it discusses various methods that can be used to evaluate investment proposals, including payback period, accounting rate of return, net present value, and internal rate of return.
Capital budgeting decisions are much vital than the decisions on management of working capital as these decisions requires careful analysis of the expected costs and benefits to be derived from each capital expenditure on acquisition of land, building, equipments and for permanent additions to working capital associated with the plant expansion.
The level of investments that maximizes the present value of the firm is simultaneously determined by the interaction of supply and demand forces under conditions of uncertainty
This document provides an overview of capital budgeting and cash flows. It defines key capital budgeting terminology and outlines the major components of relevant cash flows. It also describes the capital budgeting process, including proposal generation, review and analysis, decision making, implementation, and follow up. Additionally, it explains how to calculate the initial investment, operating cash inflows, terminal cash flow, and discusses capital budgeting techniques like payback period, net present value, and internal rate of return.
Capital budgeting is the process of analyzing potential long-term investments and capital expenditures. It involves forecasting cash flows of investment projects over multiple years and using tools like net present value, internal rate of return, and payback period to evaluate which projects to undertake given the firm's financial resources and objectives. The capital budgeting process includes organizing proposals, screening projects, evaluating projects, establishing priorities, and final approval and evaluation. The goal is to allocate funds efficiently to projects that will maximize long-term profitability.
The Miller-Orr model of cash management allows businesses to set upper and lower cash balance limits and determine a target cash balance point. It accounts for stochastic cash inflows and outflows. The key assumptions are random daily cash balances, ability to invest idle cash, and transaction fees for buying/selling securities.
Money markets deal with short-term financial assets up to one year. Transactions typically occur through phone without brokers. Participants include central banks, commercial banks, and non-bank financial institutions.
International finance management helps determine exchange rates, assess foreign debt securities and inflation rates, compare countries' economic statuses, and identify foreign market opportunities. Exchange rates strongly influence international finance calculations.
There is a consistent relationship
Capital expenditures refer to substantial outlays of funds intended to lower costs and increase net income over several years. There are various classes of capital expenditures like replacement investments, expansion investments, product/market investments, and strategic investments. Capital budgeting involves planning and controlling capital expenditures. It establishes investment priorities, ensures cash availability, minimizes construction time, and eliminates duplication. The capital budgeting system includes preparing and approving budget requests, appropriation requests, progress reports, and post-approval reviews.
This document discusses various aspects of capital budgeting and working capital management. It defines capital budgeting as the process of determining the viability of long-term investments and outlines techniques used such as payback period, net present value, internal rate of return. It also discusses sources of long-term and short-term financing, the operating cycle of working capital, and the significance of the cost of capital in investment evaluation and designing an optimal debt policy.
Chapter- III Techniques of Capital Budgeting
Concept, Significance, Nature and classification of capital budgeting decisions, cash flow computation- Incremental approach; Evaluation criteria- Pay Back Period, ARR, NPV, IRR and PI methods; capital rationing, Capital budgeting under risk and uncertainty.
The director of an organization has been invited to attend a seminar on financial management. Topics to be covered include the scope and objectives of financial management and the capital asset pricing model. The director has asked the author to write a paper on these two topics. The document provides background information on financial management, including its scope, objectives and functions. It also discusses concepts related to financial planning, investment decisions, financial decisions, and dividend decisions.
CAPITAL BUDGETING. for the business purposesHAFIDHISAIDI1
This document provides an outline and introduction to capital budgeting. It discusses determining relevant cash flows, capital budgeting techniques under certainty, and some of the main capital budgeting techniques including payback period, accounting rate of return, net present value, internal rate of return, and profitability index. It also discusses problems that can arise with using the internal rate of return method, such as the potential for multiple internal rates of return when cash flows are non-conventional.
CAPITAL BUDGETING. for the business purposesHAFIDHISAIDI1
This document provides an outline and introduction to capital budgeting. It discusses determining relevant cash flows, capital budgeting techniques under certainty, and some of the main capital budgeting techniques including payback period, accounting rate of return, net present value, internal rate of return, and profitability index. It also discusses problems that can arise with using the internal rate of return method, such as the potential for multiple internal rates of return when cash flows are non-conventional.
This document discusses capital budgeting, which relates to long-term investment decisions for firms. It defines capital budgeting as decisions regarding long-term assets that provide benefits over multiple years in the future. Some key points made include:
- Capital budgeting decisions involve large amounts of funds for long-term goals and are difficult and irreversible.
- The capital budgeting process considers total assets, business risk, and the cost of capital. It also distinguishes between unlimited funds and capital rationing situations.
- The capital budgeting process involves five steps: proposal generation, review and analysis, decision-making, implementation, and follow-up.
- Popular capital budgeting methods are discussed, including
Capital budgeting is a process of evaluating investments and huge expenses in order to obtain the best returns on investment.
An organization is often faced with the challenges of selecting between two projects/investments or the buy vs replace decision. Ideally, an organization would like to invest in all profitable projects but due to the limitation on the availability of capital an organization has to choose between different projects/investments.
What are the objectives of Capital budgeting?
Capital expenditures are huge and have a long-term effect. Therefore, while performing a capital budgeting analysis an organization must keep the following objectives in mind:
1. Selecting profitable projects
An organization comes across various profitable projects frequently. But due to capital restrictions, an organization needs to select the right mix of profitable projects that will increase its shareholders’ wealth.
2. Capital expenditure control
Selecting the most profitable investment is the main objective of capital budgeting. However, controlling capital costs is also an important objective. Forecasting capital expenditure requirements and budgeting for it, and ensuring no investment opportunities are lost is the crux of budgeting.
3. Finding the right sources for funds
Determining the quantum of funds and the sources for procuring them is another important objective of capital budgeting. Finding the balance between the cost of borrowing and returns on investment is an important goal of Capital Budgeting.
The following are the two methods:
A) Traditional Method
1. Pay back period method
2. Improvement of traditional approach
3. Rate of Return Method or Accounting Method
B) Time adjusted method or discount methods
4. Net Present Value method
5. Internal Rate of Return Method
6. Profitability Index Method
This document provides an overview of capital budgeting principles and techniques. It discusses key concepts such as identifying relevant cash flows, evaluation techniques like payback period, accounting rate of return, net present value, and internal rate of return. It also covers the capital budgeting process and types of investment decisions such as expansion, replacement, and contingent investments. The document is intended to teach students about evaluating long-term investment projects and making capital budgeting decisions.
1. Elemental Economics - Introduction to mining.pdfNeal Brewster
After this first you should: Understand the nature of mining; have an awareness of the industry’s boundaries, corporate structure and size; appreciation the complex motivations and objectives of the industries’ various participants; know how mineral reserves are defined and estimated, and how they evolve over time.
^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Duba...mayaclinic18
Whatsapp (+971581248768) Buy Abortion Pills In Dubai/ Qatar/Kuwait/Doha/Abu Dhabi/Alain/RAK City/Satwa/Al Ain/Abortion Pills For Sale In Qatar, Doha. Abu az Zuluf. Abu Thaylah. Ad Dawhah al Jadidah. Al Arish, Al Bida ash Sharqiyah, Al Ghanim, Al Ghuwariyah, Qatari, Abu Dhabi, Dubai.. WHATSAPP +971)581248768 Abortion Pills / Cytotec Tablets Available in Dubai, Sharjah, Abudhabi, Ajman, Alain, Fujeira, Ras Al Khaima, Umm Al Quwain., UAE, buy cytotec in Dubai– Where I can buy abortion pills in Dubai,+971582071918where I can buy abortion pills in Abudhabi +971)581248768 , where I can buy abortion pills in Sharjah,+97158207191 8where I can buy abortion pills in Ajman, +971)581248768 where I can buy abortion pills in Umm al Quwain +971)581248768 , where I can buy abortion pills in Fujairah +971)581248768 , where I can buy abortion pills in Ras al Khaimah +971)581248768 , where I can buy abortion pills in Alain+971)581248768 , where I can buy abortion pills in UAE +971)581248768 we are providing cytotec 200mg abortion pill in dubai, uae.Medication abortion offers an alternative to Surgical Abortion for women in the early weeks of pregnancy. Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman
[4:55 p.m.] Bryan Oates
OJPs are becoming a critical resource for policy-makers and researchers who study the labour market. LMIC continues to work with Vicinity Jobs’ data on OJPs, which can be explored in our Canadian Job Trends Dashboard. Valuable insights have been gained through our analysis of OJP data, including LMIC research lead
Suzanne Spiteri’s recent report on improving the quality and accessibility of job postings to reduce employment barriers for neurodivergent people.
Decoding job postings: Improving accessibility for neurodivergent job seekers
Improving the quality and accessibility of job postings is one way to reduce employment barriers for neurodivergent people.
Falcon stands out as a top-tier P2P Invoice Discounting platform in India, bridging esteemed blue-chip companies and eager investors. Our goal is to transform the investment landscape in India by establishing a comprehensive destination for borrowers and investors with diverse profiles and needs, all while minimizing risk. What sets Falcon apart is the elimination of intermediaries such as commercial banks and depository institutions, allowing investors to enjoy higher yields.
In a tight labour market, job-seekers gain bargaining power and leverage it into greater job quality—at least, that’s the conventional wisdom.
Michael, LMIC Economist, presented findings that reveal a weakened relationship between labour market tightness and job quality indicators following the pandemic. Labour market tightness coincided with growth in real wages for only a portion of workers: those in low-wage jobs requiring little education. Several factors—including labour market composition, worker and employer behaviour, and labour market practices—have contributed to the absence of worker benefits. These will be investigated further in future work.
5 Tips for Creating Standard Financial ReportsEasyReports
Well-crafted financial reports serve as vital tools for decision-making and transparency within an organization. By following the undermentioned tips, you can create standardized financial reports that effectively communicate your company's financial health and performance to stakeholders.
Independent Study - College of Wooster Research (2023-2024) FDI, Culture, Glo...AntoniaOwensDetwiler
"Does Foreign Direct Investment Negatively Affect Preservation of Culture in the Global South? Case Studies in Thailand and Cambodia."
Do elements of globalization, such as Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), negatively affect the ability of countries in the Global South to preserve their culture? This research aims to answer this question by employing a cross-sectional comparative case study analysis utilizing methods of difference. Thailand and Cambodia are compared as they are in the same region and have a similar culture. The metric of difference between Thailand and Cambodia is their ability to preserve their culture. This ability is operationalized by their respective attitudes towards FDI; Thailand imposes stringent regulations and limitations on FDI while Cambodia does not hesitate to accept most FDI and imposes fewer limitations. The evidence from this study suggests that FDI from globally influential countries with high gross domestic products (GDPs) (e.g. China, U.S.) challenges the ability of countries with lower GDPs (e.g. Cambodia) to protect their culture. Furthermore, the ability, or lack thereof, of the receiving countries to protect their culture is amplified by the existence and implementation of restrictive FDI policies imposed by their governments.
My study abroad in Bali, Indonesia, inspired this research topic as I noticed how globalization is changing the culture of its people. I learned their language and way of life which helped me understand the beauty and importance of cultural preservation. I believe we could all benefit from learning new perspectives as they could help us ideate solutions to contemporary issues and empathize with others.
STREETONOMICS: Exploring the Uncharted Territories of Informal Markets throug...sameer shah
Delve into the world of STREETONOMICS, where a team of 7 enthusiasts embarks on a journey to understand unorganized markets. By engaging with a coffee street vendor and crafting questionnaires, this project uncovers valuable insights into consumer behavior and market dynamics in informal settings."
Vicinity Jobs’ data includes more than three million 2023 OJPs and thousands of skills. Most skills appear in less than 0.02% of job postings, so most postings rely on a small subset of commonly used terms, like teamwork.
Laura Adkins-Hackett, Economist, LMIC, and Sukriti Trehan, Data Scientist, LMIC, presented their research exploring trends in the skills listed in OJPs to develop a deeper understanding of in-demand skills. This research project uses pointwise mutual information and other methods to extract more information about common skills from the relationships between skills, occupations and regions.
Abhay Bhutada, the Managing Director of Poonawalla Fincorp Limited, is an accomplished leader with over 15 years of experience in commercial and retail lending. A Qualified Chartered Accountant, he has been pivotal in leveraging technology to enhance financial services. Starting his career at Bank of India, he later founded TAB Capital Limited and co-founded Poonawalla Finance Private Limited, emphasizing digital lending. Under his leadership, Poonawalla Fincorp achieved a 'AAA' credit rating, integrating acquisitions and emphasizing corporate governance. Actively involved in industry forums and CSR initiatives, Abhay has been recognized with awards like "Young Entrepreneur of India 2017" and "40 under 40 Most Influential Leader for 2020-21." Personally, he values mindfulness, enjoys gardening, yoga, and sees every day as an opportunity for growth and improvement.
1. Meaning
CHAPTER 29
Capital Budgeting
The term Capital Budgeting refers to the long-term planning for proposed capital outlays or
expenditure for the purpose of maximizing return on investments. The capital expenditure may be :
(1) Cost of mechanization, automation and replacement.
(2) Cost of acquisition of fixed assets. e.g., land, building and machinery etc.
(3) Investment on research and development.
(4) Cost of development and expansion of existing and new projects.
DEFINITION OF CAPITAL BUDGETING
Capital Budget is also known as "Investment Decision Making or Capital Expenditure Decisions" or
"Planning Capital Expenditure" etc. Normally such decisions where investment of money and expected
benefits arising therefrom are spread over more than one year, it includes both raising of long-term funds
as well as their utilization. Charles T. Horngnen has defined capital budgeting as "Capital Budgeting is longterm
planning for making and financing proposed capital outlays."
In other words, capital budgeting is the decision making process by which a firm evaluates the purchase
of major fixed assets including building, machinery and equipment. According to Hamption, John. 1.,
"Capital budgeting is concerned with the firm's formal process for the acquisition and investment of capital."
From the above definitions, it may be concluded that capital budgeting relates to the evaluation of
several alternative capital projects for the purpose of assessing those which have the highest rate of return
on investment.
Importance of Capital Budgeting
Capital budgeting is important because of the following reasons :
(1) Capital budgeting decisions involve long-term implication for the firm, and influence its risk
complexion.
(2) Capital budgeting involves commitment of large amount of funds.
2. Capital Budgeting 643
(3) Capital decisions are required to assessment of future events which are uncertain.
(4) Wrong sale forcast ; may lead to over or under investment of resources.
(5) In most cases, capital budgeting decisions are irreversible. This is because it is very difficult to
find a market for the capital goods. The only alternative available is to scrap the asset, and incur
heavy loss.
(6) Capital budgeting ensures the selection of right source of finance at the right time.
(7) Many firms fail, because they have too much or too little capital equipment.
(8) Investment decision taken by individual concern is of national importance because it determines
employment, economic activities and economic growth.
Objectives of Capital Budgeting
The following are the .important objectives of capital budgeting:
(1) To ensure the selection of the possible profitable capital projects.
(2) To ensure the effective control of capital expenditure in order to achieve by forecasting the
long-term financial requirements.
(3) To make estimation of capital expenditure during the budget period and to see that the benefits
and costs may be measured in terms of cash flow.
(4) Determining the required quantum takes place as per authorization and sanctions.
(5) To facilitate co-ordination of inter-departmental project funds among the competing capital
projects.
(6) To ensure maximization of profit by allocating the available investible.
Principles or Factors of Capital BUdgeting Decisions
A decision regarding investment or a capital budgeting decision involves the following principles or
factors:
(1) A careful estimate of the amount to be invested.
(2) Creative search for profitable opportunities.
(3) A careful estimates of revenues to be earned and costs to be incurred in future in respect of the
project under consideration.
(4) A listing and consideration of non-monetary factors influencing the decisions.
(5) Evaluation of various proposals in order of priority having regard to the amount available for
investment.
(6) Proposals should be controlled in order to avoid costly delays and cost over-runs.
(7) Evaluation of actual results achieved against those budget.
(8) Care should be taken to think all the implication of long range capital investment and working
capital requirements.
(9) It should recognize the fact that bigger benefits are preferable to smaller ones and early benefits
are preferable to latter benefits.
3. 644 A Textbook of Financial Cost and Management Accounting
Capital Budgeting Process
The following procedure may be considered in the process of capital budgeting decisions :
(1) Identification of profitable investment proposals.
(2) Screening and selection of right proposals.
(3) Evaluation of measures of investment worth on the basis of profitability and uncertainty or risk.
(4) Establishing priorities, i.e., uneconomical or unprofitable proposals may be rejected.
(5) Final approval and preparation of capital expenditure budget.
(6) Implementing proposal, i.e., project execution.
(7) Review the performance of projects.
Types of Capital Expenditure
Capital Expenditure can be of two types :
(1) Capital expenditure increases revenue.
(2) Capital expenditure reduces costs.
(1) Capital Expenditure Increases Revenue: It is the expenditure which brings more revenue to the
firm either by expanding the existing production facilities or development of new production line.
(2) Capital Expenditure Reduces Costs: Such a capital expenditure reduces the cost of present product
and thereby increases the profitability of existing operations. It can be done by replacement of old machine by
a new one.
Types of Capital Budgeting Proposals
A firm may have several investment proposals for its consideration. It may adopt after considering
the merits and demerits of each one of them. For this purpose capital expenditure proposals may be
classified into :
(1) Independent Proposals
(2) Dependent Proposals or Contingent Proposals
(3) Mutually Excusive Proposals
(1) Independent Proposals: These proposals are said be to economically independent which are accepted
or rejected on the basis of minimum return on investment required. Independent proposals do not depend
upon each other.
(2) Dependent Proposals or Contingent Proposals: In this case, when the acceptance of one proposal
is contingent upon the acceptance of other proposals. it is called as "Dependent or Contingent Proposals." For
example, construction of new building on account of installation of new plant and machinery.
(3) Mutually Exclusive Proposals: Mutually Exclusive Proposals refer to the acceptance of one proposal
results in the automatic rejection of the other proposal. Then the two investments are mutually exclusive. In
other words, one can be rejected and the other can be accepted. It is easier for a firm to take capital budgeting
decisions on such projects.
4. Capital Budgeting 645
Methods of Evaluating Capital Investment Proposals
There are number of appraisal methods which may be recommended for evaluating the capital
investment proposals. We shall discuss the most widely accepted methods. These methods can be grouped
into the following categories :
I. Traditional Methods:
Traditional methods are grouped in to the following :
(1) Pay-back period method or Payout method.
(2) Improvement of Traditional Approach to Pay-back Period Method.
(a) Post Pay-back profitability Method.
(b) Discounted Pay-back Period Method.
(c) Reciprocal Pay-back Period Method.
(3) Rate of Return Method or Accounting Rate of Return Method.
II. Time Adjusted Method or Discounted Cash Flow Method
Time Adjusted Method further classified into:
(1) Net Present Value Method.
(2) Internal Rate of Return Method.
(3) Profitability Index Method.
I. Traditional Methods
(1) Pay-back Period Method : Pay-back period is also termed as "Pay-out period" or Pay-off
period. Payout Period Method is one of the most popular and widely recognized traditional method of
evaluating investment proposals. It is defined as the number of years required to recover the initial
investment in full with the help of the stream of annual cash flows generated by the project.
Calculation of Pay-back Period: Pay-back period can be calculated into the following two different
situations :
(a) In the case of constant annual cash inflows.
(b) In the case of uneven or unequal cash inflows.
(a) In the case of constant annual cash inflows : If the project generates constant cash flow the
Pay-back period can be computed by dividing cash outlays (original investment) by annual cash inflows.
The following formula can be used to ascertain pay-back period :
Cash Outlays (Initial Investment)
Pay-back Period =
Annual Cash Inflows
Illustration: 1
A project requires initial investment of Rs. 40,000 and it will generate an annual cash inflows of
Rs. 10,000 for 6 years. You are required to find out pay-back period.
5. 646
Solution:
Calculation of Pay-back period :
Pay-back Period =
=
A Textbook of Financial Cost and Management Accouming
Cash Outlays (Initial Investment)
Annual Cash Inflows
Rs. 40,000
Rs. 10,000
= 4 Years
Pay-back period is 4 years, i.e., the investment is fully recovered in 4 years.
(b) In the case of Uneven or Unequal Cash Inflows: In the case of uneven or unequal cash
inflows, the Pay-back period is determined with the help of cumulative cash inflow. It can be calculated
by adding up the cash inflows until the total is equal to the initial investment.
Illustration: 2
From the following information you are required to calculate pay-back period :
A project requires initial investment of Rs. 40,000 and generate cash inflows of Rs. 16,000,
Rs. 14,000, Rs. 8,000 and Rs. 6,000 in the first, second, third, and fourth year respectively.
Solution:
Calculation Pay-back Period with the help of "Cumulative Cash Inflows"
Year
1
2
3
4
Annual Cash Inflows
Rs.
16,000
14,000
8,000
6,000
Cumulative Cash Inflows
Rs.
16,000
30,000
38,000
44,000
The above table shows that at the end of 4th years the cumulative cash inflows exceeds the investment of Rs.
40,000. Thus the pay-back period is as follows :
Pay-back Period = 3 Years +
= 3 Years +
= 3.33 Years
Illustration : 3
40,000 - 38,000
6,000
Rs.2,000
Rs. 6,000
Rahave Ltd. is producing articles mostly by manual labour and is considering to replace it by a new
machine. There are two alternative models X and Y of the new machine. Prepare a statement of
profitability showing the pay~back period from the following information :
Estimate life of the Machine
Cost of machine
Estimated savings in scrap
Machine
X
4 Years
Rs. 1,80,000
Rs. 10,000
Machine
Y
5 Years
Rs. 3,60,000
Rs. 16,000
6. Capital Budgeting
Estimated savings in direct wages
Additional cost of maintenance
Additional cost of supervision
Solution:
Rs. 1,20,000
Rs. 16,000
Rs. 24,000
Calculation of Annual Cash Inflows
Particulars Machine X
Rs.
Estimated saving in scrap 10,000
Add: Estimated saving in direct wages 1,20,000
Total saving (A) 1,30,000
Additional cost of maintenance 16,000
Additional cost of supervision 24,000
Total additional cost (B) 40,000
Net Cash Inflows (A) - (B) 90,000
Pay-back Period
Original Investment = Annual Average Cash Inflows
Rs.l,80,000
Machine X = = 2 Years
Rs.90,000
Rs.3,60,000
Machine Y = = 3 Years
Rs.l,20,000
Machine X should be preferred because it has a shorter pay-back period.
Illustration: 4
Rs. 1,60,000
Rs. 20,000
Rs. 36,000
Machine Y
Rs.
16,000
1,60,000
1,76,000
20,000
36,000
56,000
1.20,000
647
From the following information advise the management as to which project is preferable based on
pay-back period. Two projects X and Y, each project requires an investment of Rs. 30,000. The standard
cut off period for the company is 5 years.
(Net profit before depreciation and after tax)
Solution:
Years
I st
II nd
III rd
IV th
Vth
Calculation of Pay-back Period
Project X =
Project Y =
Project X
Rs.
10,000
10,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
Project Y
Rs.
8,000
8,000
12,000
6,000
7,000
Rs. 10,000 + Rs. 10,000 + Rs. 4,000 + Rs. 6,000
Rs. 30,000 is recovered in 4th year
Rs. 8,000 + Rs. 8,000 + Rs. 12,000
Rs. 30,000 is recovered in 3rd year
The Pay-back period of project X and Yare 4 years and 3 years respectively and thus project Y should be
preferred because it has a shorter pay-back period.
7. .648 A Textbook of Financial Cost and Management Accounting
Accept or Reject Criterion
Investment decisions based on pay-back period used by many firms to accept or reject an investment proposal.
Among the mutually exclusive or alternative projects whose pay-back periods are lower than the cut off period. the
project would be accepted. if not it would be rejected.
Advantages of Pay-back Period Method
(1) It is an important guide to investment policy
(2) It is simple to understand and easy to calculate
(3) It facilitates to determine the liquidity and solvency of a firm
(4) It helps to measure the profitable internal investment opportunities
(5) It enables the firm to select an investment which yields a quick return on cash funds
(6) It used as a method of ranking competitive projects
(7) It ensures reduction of cost of capital expenditure.
Disadvantages of Pay-back Period Method
(1) It does not measure the profitability of a project
(2) It does not value projects of different economic lives
(3) This method does not consider income beyond the pay-back period
(4) It does not give proper weight to timing of cash flows
(5) It does not indicate how to maximize value and ignores the relative profitability of the project
(6) It does not consider cost of capital and interest factor which are very important factors in taking sound
investment decisions.
2. Improvement of Traditional Approach to Pay-back Period
The demerits of the pay-back period method may be eliminated in the following ways:
(a) Post Pay-back Profitability Method: One of the limitations of the pay-back period method is that
it ignores the post pay-back returns of project. To rectify the defect, post pay-back period method considers
the amount of profits earned after the pay-back period. This method is also known as Surplus Life Over Payback
Method. According to this method, pay-back profitability is calculated by annual cash inflows in each of
the year, after the pay-back period. This can be expressed in percentage of investment.
Post Pay-back Profitability = Annual Cash Inflow x (Estimated Life - Pay-back Period)
The post pay-back profitability index can be determined by the following equation :
Post Pay-back Profits Post Pay-back Profitability Index = x 100
Initial Investments
(b) Discounted Pay-back Method: This method is designed to overcome the limitation of the payback
period method. When savings are not levelled, it is better to calculate the pay-back period by taking into
consideration the present value of cash inflows. Discounted pay-back method helps to measure the present
value of all cash inflows and outflows at an appropriate discount rate. The time period at which the cumulated
present value of cash inflows equals the present value of cash outflows is known as discounted pay-back period.
(c) Reciprocal Pay-back Period Method: This methods helps to measure the expected rate of return
of income generated by a project. Reciprocal pay-back period method is a close approximation of the Time
8. Capital Budgeting 649
Adjusted Rate of Return, if the earnings are levelled and the estimated life of the project is somewhat more
than twice the pay-back period. This can be calculated by the following formula:
Annual Cash Inflows
Reciprocal Pay-back Period = x 100
Total Investment
Illustration: 5
The company is considering investment of Rs. 1,00,000 in a project. The following are the income
forecasts, after depreciation and tax, 1st year Rs. 10,000, 2nd year Rs. 40,000, 3rd year Rs. 60,000, 4th
year Rs. 20,000 and 5th year Rs. Nil.
From the above information you are required to calculate: (1) Pay-back Period (2) Discounted Pay-back Period
at 10% interest factor.
Solution:
(1) Calculation of Pay-back Period
Year
1
2
3
4
5
Annual Cash Inflows
Rs.
10,000
40,000
60,000
20,000
Cumulative Cash Inflows
Rs.
10,000
50,000
1,10,000
1,30,000
1,30,000
The above table shows that at the end of 3rd year the Cumulative Cash Inflows exceeds the investment of Rs.
1,00,000. Thus the Pay-back Period is as follows:
Pay-back Period = 2 Years +
= 2 Years +
1,00,000 - 50,000
60,000
Rs.50,000
Rs.60,000
= 2 Years + 0.833 = 2.833 Years
(2) Calculation of Discounted Pay-back Period 10% Interest Rate:
Year Cash Inflows Discounting Present Present Value of
Value Factor at 10% Cash Inflows (2 x3)
I 2 3 4
Rs. Rs. Rs.
1 10,000 0.9091 9,091
2 40,000 0.8265 33,060
3 60,000 0.7513 45,078
4 20,000 0.6830 13,660
5 - 0.6209 -
Cumulative Value of
Cash Inflows
Rs.
9,091
42,151
87,229
1,00,889
1,00,889
From the above table, it is observed that upto the 4th year Rs. 1,00,000 is recovered. Because the Discounting
Cumulative Cash Inflows exceeds the original cash outlays of Rs. 1,00,000. Thus the Discounted Pay-back Period is
calculated as follows :
9. 650
Pay-back Period = 3 Years +
= 3 Years +
A Textbook of Financial Cost and Management Accounting
1,00,000 - 87,229
13,660
12,771
13,660
= 3 Years + 0.935 = 3.935 Years
(3) Average Rate of Return Method (ARR) or Accounting Rate of Return Method: Average Rate of Return
Method is also termed as Accounting Rate of Return Method. This method focuses on the average net income generated
in a project in relation to the project's average investment outlay. This method involves accounting profits not cash flows
and is similar to the pelformance measure of return on capital employed. The average rate of returr. can be determined by
the following equation:
Average Rate of Return (ARR)
Average Income
= -------- x 100
Average Investments
(or)
Cash Flow - (After Depreciation and Tax)
= ---------------------
Original Investments
No. of Projects
= x 100
No. of Years
Where,
Average investment would be equal to the Original investment plus salvage value divided by Two
Average Investment =
Original Investment
2
(or)
Original Investment - Scrap Value of the Project
= 2
Advantages
(1) It considers all the years involved in the life of a project rather than only pay-back years.
(2) It applies accounting profit as a criterion of measurement and not cash flow.
Disadvantages
(1) It applies profit as a measure of yardstick not cash flow.
(2) The time value of money is ignored in this method.
(3) Yearly profit determination may be a difficult task.
Illustration: 6
From the following information you are required to find out Average Rate of Return :
An investment with expenditure of Rs.lD,OO,OOO is expected to produce the following profits (after
deducting depreciation)
1st Year
2nd Year
3rd Year
4th Year
Rs. 80,000
Rs. 1,60,000
Rs. 1,80,000
Rs. 60,000
10. Capital Budgeting
Solution:
Calculation of Accounting Rate of Return
Average Rate of Return
Average Annual Profits - Depreciation and Taxes
= ---------------------------------------- x 100 Average Investments
80,000 + 1,60,000 + 1,80,000 + 60,000
Average Annual Profits = ------------------------------
4
=
4,80,000
4
= Rs. 1,20,000
Average Investments (Assuming Nil Scrap Value) =
=
Average Rate of Return =
Investment at
beginning +
2
10,00,000 + 0
2
1,20,000 + 0
5,00,000
Investment
at the end
= Rs. 5,00,000
x 100 = 24%
65/
The percentage is compared with those of other projects in order that the investment yielding the highest rate of
return can be selected.
Illustration: 7
Calculate the Average Rate of Return for project' A' and 'B' from the following information:
Investments (Rs.)
Expected Life (in years)
Net earnings
(After Depreciation & Taxes) :
1st Year
2nd Year
3rd Year
4th Year
5th Year
Project A
25,000
4
Rs.
2,500
1,875
1,875
1,250
7,500
If the desired rate of return is 12%, which project should be selected?
Project B
37,000
5
Rs.
3,750
3,750
2,500
1,250
1,250
12,500
11. 652
Solution:
A Textbook of Financial Cost and Management Accounting
Calculation of Accounting Rate of Return
Average Rate of Return =
Average Annual Profit - Depreciation and Taxes
------------------------------------ x 100
~verage Investments
Annual Average Profits :
7,500
Project A =
4
= Rs. 1,875
12,500 = Rs. 2,500
5
Project B =
Average Investments :
Investment at Investment
beginning + at the end
=
2
25,000 + 0
Project A = Rs.12,500
2
37,500 + 0
= = Rs.18,750
2
Project B
Average Rate of Return
Average Annual Profit - Depreciation and Taxes = Average Investments
1,875
Project A = x 100 = 15%
Project B
12,500
2,500 = x 100 = 13.33 %
18,750
x 100
Both the project satisfy the minimum required rate of return. The percentage is compared with those of other
project in order that the investment yielding the highest rate of return can be selected. Project A will be selected as its
ARR is higher than Project B.
Illustration: 8
A project costs Rs. 5,00,000 and has a scrap value of 1,00.000 after 5 years. The net profit before
depreciation and taxes for the five years period are expected to be Rs. 1,00.000. Rs. 1,20,000. Rs.
1.40,000, Rs. 1,60.000 and Rs. 2.00,000. You are required to calculate the Accounting Rate of Return,
assuming 50% rate of tax and depreciation on straight line method.
12. Capital Budgeting 653
Solution:
Calculation of Accounting Rate of Return
Years
Particulars 1 2 3 4 5 Average
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
Net Income before :}
Depreciation and Taxes 1,00,000 1,20,000 1,40,000 1,60,000 2,00,000 1,44,000
Less: Depreciation
{5,00,000; 1,00,00Q.}
80,000 80,000 80,000 80,000 80,000 80,000
Net Profit before Taxes 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 1,20,000 64,000
Less : Taxes @ 50% 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 60,000 32,000
Net Profit After Tax 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 60,000 32,000
Accounting Rate of Return =
Average Annual Profits - Depreciation and Taxes
------------------------------------- x 100
Average Investment
Average Annual Profits After Depreciation and Taxes = Rs. 32,000
Average Investments
Original Investments - Scrap Value
=
2
5,00,000 - 1,00,000 4,00,000
= =
2 2
= Rs. 2,00,000
32,000
Accounting Rate of Return = x 100 = 16%
2,00,000
The percentage is compared with those of other projects in order that the investment yielding the highest rate of
return can be selected.
Discounted Cash Flow Method (or) Time Adjusted Method: Discount cash flow is a method of capital investment
appraisal which takes into account both the overall profitability of projects and also the timing of return. Discounted cash
flow method helps to measure the cash inflow and outflow of a project as if they occurred at a single point in time so that
they can be compared in an appropriate way. This method recognizes that the use of money has a cost, i.e., interest foregone.
In this method risk can be incorporated into Discounted Cash Flow computations by adjusting the discount rate or cut off
rate.
Disadvantages
The following are some of the limitations of Discounted Pay-back Period Method:
(1) There may be difficulty in accurately establishing rates of interest over the cash flow period.
(2) Lack of adequate expertise in order to properly apply the techniques and interpret results.
(3) These techniques are based on cash flows, whereas reported earnings are based on profits. The inclusion
of Discounted Cash Flow Analysis may cause projected earnings to fluctuate considerably and thus have
an adverse on share prices.
Net Present Value Method (NPV) : This is one of the Discounted Cash Flow technique which explicitly recognizes
the time value of money. In this method all cash inflows and outflows are converted into present value (i.e., value at the
present time) applying an appropriate rate of interest (usually cost of capital).
13. 654 A Textbook of Financial Cost and Management Accounting
In other words, Net Present Value Method discount inflows and outflows to their present value at the appropriate
cost of capital and set the present value of cash inflow against the present value of outflow to calculate Net Present
Value. Thus, the Net Present Value is obtained by subtracting the present value of cash outflows from the present value
of cash inflows.
Equation for Calculating Net Present Value:
(1) In the case of conventional cash flows. i.e., all cash outflows are entirely initial and all cash inflows are in
future years, NPV may be represented as follows:
NPV + +
(2) In the case of non-conventional cash inflows, i.e., where there are a series of cash inflows as well as cash
outflows the equation for calculating NPV is as :
~ R
NPV= 2
I + K), +-(-I-:-
K-)-2 + -(-I-:....;.3K-), + (1 :"K).j - 10+--- + --- + --- + --- (1 [
II 12 13 In J
(1 + K)I (1 + K)2 (1 + K)3 (1 + K)n
Where:
NPV
R
K =
Net Present Value
Future Cash Inflows at different times
Cost of Capital or Cut-off rate or Discounting Rate
Cash outflows at different times
Rules of Acceptance: If the rate of return from a project is greater than the return from an equivalent risk investment
in securities traded in the financial market, the Net Present Value will be positive. Alternatively, if the rate of return is
lower, the Net Present Value will be negative.
In other words, if a project has a positive Net Present Value it is considered to be viable because the present
value of the inflows exceeds the present value of the outflows. If the projects are to be ranked or the decision is to
select one or another. the project with the greatest Net Present Value should be chosen
Symbolically the accept or reject criterion can be expressed as follows:
Where
NPV > Zero Accept the proposal
NPV < Zero Reject the Proposal
Advantages of Net Present Value Method
(1) It recognizes the time value of money and is thus scientific in its approach.
(2) All the cash flows spreadover the entire life of the project are used for calculations.
(3) It is consistent with the objectives of maximizing the welfare of the owners as it depicts the positive or
otherwise present value of the proposals.
Disadvantages
(1) This method is comparatively difficult to understand or use.
(2) When the projects in consideration involve different amounts of investment, the Net Present Value Method
may not give satisfactory results.
14. Capital Budgeting
Illustration: 9
655
Calculate the Net Present Value of the following project requiring an initial cash outlays of Rs.
20,000 and has a no scrap value after 6 years. The net profits after depreciation and taxes for each year of
Rs. 6,000 for six years. Assume the present value of an annuity of Re.1 for 6 years at 8% p.a. interest is
Rs.4.623.
Solution:
Calculation of Net Present Value
Initial Cash Outlays
Present Value of Cash Inflows
Net Present Value (NPV)
Net Present Value (NPV)
Illustration: 10
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Rs.20,OOO
Rs. 6,000 x Rs. 4,263
Rs.27,738
Present Value of Cash Inflows - Value of Cash Outflows
Rs. 27,738 - Rs. 20,000
Rs.7,738
Rs.7,738
A project cost Rs. 25,000 and it generates cash inflows through a period of five years Rs. 9,000,
Rs. 8,000, Rs. 7,000, Rs. 6,000 and Rs. 5,000. the required rate of return is assumed to be 10%. Find out
the Net Present Value of the project.
Solution:
The following table gives us the Net Present Value of the Project:
Calculation of Net Present Value
Year Cash inflows Discounted Factor Present Value of Cash Inflows
1 2
Rs.
1 9,000
2 8,000
3 7,000
4 6,000
5 5,000
Net Present Value =
=
3 (2 x 3) = 4
Rs. Rs.
0.9091 8,181
0.8264 6,608
0.7513 5,257
0.6830 4,098
0.6209 3,100
Net Present Value of Cash Inflows 27,244
Present Value of Cash Inflows - Value of Cash Outflow
Rs. 27,244 - 25,000 = Rs. 2,244
Now the NPV of the project is positive and it can be accepted for investment.
Illustration: 11
A project costing Rs. 5.00,000 has a life of 10 years at the end of which its scrap value is likely to be
Rs. 50,000. The firm cut-off rate is 12%. The project is expected to yield an annual profit after tax of Rs.
1,00,000 depreciation being charged on straight line basis. At 12% P.A. the present value of the rupee
received annually for 10 years is Rs. 5.65 and the value of one rupee received at the end of 10th year is Re.
0.322. Ascertain the Net Present Value of the project.
15. 656
Solution:
A Textbook of Financial Cost and Management Accounting
Calculation of Net Present Value:
Annual Profit after Tax
[
Rs. 5,00,000 ]
Add : Depreciation 5
Cash flows after tax (for year 1 to 10)
Present value factor for 10 years}
at 1~ % - 5.65
Total Present Value (1,50,000 x 5.65)
Cash flow in 10th year (scrap value) 50,000 }
Present value factor in 10th years 0.322
(50,000 x 0.322)
Present value of cash inflow in 10th year
Less: Present value of cash outflows
Net Present Value (NPV) =
Rs.
1,00,000
50,000
1,50,000
8,47,500
16,100
8,63,600
5,00,000
3,63,600
Now the Net Present Value of the project is positive and it can be accepted for investment.
Illustration: 12
MIs. Pandey Ltd. is contemplating to purchase a machine A and B each costing of Rs.5,OO,OOO.
Profits before depreciation are expected as follows :
Year Cash Inflows Discounted Factor
1 Machine A Machine B 10%
Rs. Rs.
1 1,50,000 50,000 0.9092
2 2,00,000 1,50,000 0.8264
3 2,50,000 2,00,000 0.7513
4 1,50,000 3,00,000 0.6830
5 1,00,000 2,00,000 0.6209
Using a 10% discounted rate indicate which of the machine would be profitable using the Net Present Value
(NPV) method.
Solution:
Year Discounted Machine A Machine B
1 Factor 10% Cash Flow Present Value Cash Flow Present Value
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
0 1.0000 (-)5,00,000 (-)5,00,000 (-)5,00,000 (-)5,00,000
1 0.9091 1,50,000 1,36,365 50,000 45,455
2 0.8264 2,00,000 1,65,280 1,50,000 1.23,960
3 0.7513 2,50,000 1,87,825 2,00,000 1,50,260
4 0.6830 1,50,000 1,02,450 3,00,000 2,04,900
5 0.6209 1,00,000 62,090 2,00,000 1,24,180
8,50,000 6,54,010 9,00,000 6,48,755
16. Capital Budgeting 657
Net Present Value =
Machine A = Rs. 6,54,010 - 5,00,000 = Rs. 1,54,010
Machine B = Rs. 6,48,755 - 5,00,000 = Rs. 1,48,755
From the above table, we obsserved that the Net Present Value of Machine A is higher than that of Machine B.
Hence Machine A is preferable.
(2) Internal Rate of Return Method (IRR) : Internal Rate of Return Method is also called as "Time Adjusted
Rate of Return Method." It is defined as the rate which equates the present value of each cash inflows with the present
value of cash outflows of an investment. In other words, it is the rate at which the net present value of the investment is
zero.
Horngren and Foster define Internal Rate of Return as the rate of interest at which the present value of
expected cash inflows from a project equals the present value of expected cash outflows of the project.
The Internal Rate of Return can be found out by Trial and Error Method. First, compute the present value of the
cash flow from an investment, using an arbitrarily selected interest rate, for example 10%. Then compare the present
value so obtained with the investment cost.
If the present value is higher than the cost of capital, try a higher interest rate and go through the procedure
again. On the other hand if the calculated present value of the expected cash inflows is lower than the present value of
cash outflows, a lower rate should be tried. This process will be repeated until and unless the Net Present Value
becomes zero. The interest rate that brings about this equality is defined as the Internal Rate of Return.
Alternatively, the internal rate can be obtained by Interpolation Method when we come across 2 rates. One with
positive Net Present Value and other with negative Net Present Value. The IRR is considered as the highest rate of
interest which a business is able to pay on the funds borrowed to finance the project out of cash inflows generated by
the project.
The Interpolation formula can be used to measure the Internal Rate of Return as follows :
NPV of Lower Rate
Lower Interest Rate +
NPV Lower Rate (-) NPV Higher Rate
x (Higher Rate - Lower Rate)
Evaluation
A popular discounted cash flow method, the internal rate of return criterion has several virtues :
(I) It takes into account the time value of money.
(2) It considers the cash flows over the entire life of the project.
(3) It makes more meaningful and acceptable to users because it satisfies them in terms of the rate of return on
capital.
Limitations
(1) The internal rate of return may not be uniquely defined.
(2) The IRR is difficult to understand and involves complicated computational problems.
(3) The internal rate of return figure cannot distinguish between lending and borrowings and hence high
internal rate of return need not necessarily be a desirable feature.
Illustration: 13
The cost of a project is Rs. 32,400. It is expected to generate cash inflows of Rs. 16,000, Rs. 14,000 and
Rs. 12,000 through it three year life period. Calculate the Internal Rate of Return of the Project.
17. 658
Solution:
A Textbook of Financial Cost and Management Accounting
Calculation of Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
To begin with let us try a rate of 20% and calculate the present value of cash inflows on this rate. The following
table will give the calculations:
Year Cash inflows Discounted Factor Present Value of Cash Inflows
1 2 at 20% (2 x 3) = 4
Rs. 3 Rs.
1 16,000 0.833 13,328
2 14,000 0.694 9,716
3 12,000 0.579 6,948
Total Present Value of Cash Inflows = Rs.29,992
Net Present Value = Present Value of Cash Inflows - Value of Cash Outlays
= Rs. 29,992 - Rs. 32,400 = (-) Rs. 2408
Net Present Value (NPV) = - Rs. 2408
The Net Present Value in this case is negative indicating that 20% is the higher rate and so a lower
rate should be tried. Let us try 18%, 16% and 14% respectively. On these rates we will get the following results:
Year Cash Discounted
1 Inflows Factor
2 18%
3
Rs.
1 16,000 0.847
2 14,000 0.718
3 12,000 0.609
Present Value of Cash Inflows
Less: Value of Cash Outflows
Net Present Value (NPV) = (-)
Present
Value
(2 x 3)
4
Rs.
13,552
10,052
7,308
30,912 .
32,400
1,488
Discount
Factor
16%
5
0.862
0.743
0.641
Present
Value
(2 x 5)
6
Rs.
13.792
10,402
7,692
31,886
32,400
(-) 514
Discount
Factor
14%
7
0.877
0.769
0.675
Present
Value
(2 x 7)
8
Rs.
14.032
10,766
8,100
31,898
32,400
(-) 498
From the above table of Calculation is can be observed that the real rate lies in between 14% and 16%.
Therefore let us select 15% as the internal rate to ascrtain its applicability.
Year
1
1
2
3
Cash inflows Discounted Factor
2
Rs.
16,000
14,000
12,000
Present Value of Cash Inflows
Less: Value of Cash Outflow
Net Present Value
15%
3
0.870
0.756
0.658
=
Present Value of Cash Inflows
(2 x 3) 4
Rs.
13,920
10,584
7,896
32,400
32,400
o
Thus, the Net Present Value at 15% rate is zero. It indicates that the present value of cash inflows is equal to the
present value of cash outflows. Thus internal rate of return 15% for the project under review.
18. Capital Budgeting 659
Illustration: 14
The cash flows of projects C and D are reproduced below :
Project Cash Flows
Co C1 C2 CJ NVP at 10% IRR
C - Rs.IO,OOO + 2,000 + 4,000 + 12,000 + Rs. 4,139 26.5%
D - Rs.IO,OOO + 10,000 + 3,000 + 30,000 + Rs. 3,823 37.6%
(i) Why there is a conflict of ranking?
(ii) Why should you recommend Project C in spite of lower internal rate of return?
TIme I 2 3
Period
PVIF 0.10 t 0.909 0.8264 0.7513
PVIF 0.14 t 0.8772 0.7695 0.6750
PVIF 0.15 t 0.8696 0.7561 0.6575
PVIF 0.30 t 0.7692 0.5917 0.4552
PVIF 0.40 t 0.7143 0.5102 0.3644 rCA, May, 2002J
Solution:
(i) Suppose the discount rates are 0%, 10%, 15%, 30%, and 40%. The Net Present Value for each of the
project is given below:
Discount Net Present Value (NVP)
Rate (%) C D
0 8,000 6,000
10 4,139 3,823
15 2,660 2,942
30 - 634 831
40 - 2164 - 238
The conflict in ranking arises because of skewness in cash flows. In case of project C, cash flows occur later in
the life and in case of project D, cash flows are skewed towards the beginning.
At lower discount rate, project C's NPV will be higher than that of project D.
As the discount rate increases, project C's NPV will fall at a faster rate, due to compounding effect. After breakeven
discount rate (14%) project D has higher NPV as well as higher IRR.
(ii) If the opportunity cost of funds is 10%, project C should be accepted because the firm's wealth will be
more by Rs.316 (Rs.4139 - Rs.3823)
The incremental analysis will substantiate this point :
Project Cash Flows (Rs.)
C C1 C2 CJ NVPat 10% IRR 0
C - D 0 - 8,000 + 1,000 + 9,000 Rs.316 12.5%
Thus Project C should be accepted, when opportunity cost of fund is 10%.
19. 660 A Textbook of Financial Cost and Management Accounting
(3) Profitability Index Method
Profitability Index is also known as Benefit Cost Ratio. It gives the present value of future benefits, computed
at the required rate of return on the initial investment. Profitability Index may either be Gross Profitability Index or
Net Profitability Index. Net Profitability Index is the Gross Profitability Index minus one. The Profitability Index can
be calculated by the following equation:
Present Value of Cash Inflows
Profitability Index =
Initial Cash Outlays
Rule of Acceptance: As per the Benefit Cost Ratio or Profitability Index a project with Profitability Index greater
than one should be accepted as it will have Positive Net Present Value. Likewise if Profitability Index is less than one the
project is not beneficial and should not be accepted.
Advantages of Profitability Index:
(1) It duly recognizes the time value of money.
(2) For calculations when compared with internal rate of return method it requires less time.
(3) It helps in ranking the project for investment decisions.
(4) As this method is capable of calculating incremental benefit cost ratio, it can be used to choose between
mutually exclusive projects.
Illustration: 15
A project is in the consideration of a firm. The initial outlay of the project is Rs. 10,000 and it is
expected to generate cash inflows of Rs. 4,000, Rs. 3,000, Rs. 5,000 and Rs. 2,000 in four years to follow.
Assuming 10% rate of discount, calculate the Net Present Value and Benefit Cost Ratio of the project.
Solution:
Profitability Index
Year Cash inflows Discounted Factor Present Value of Cash Inflows
1 2 10% (2 x 3) 4
Rs. 3 Rs.
1 4,000 0.909 3,636
2 3,000 0.826 2,478
3 5,000 0.751 3,755
4 2,000 0.683 1,366
Net Present Value of Cash Inflows = 11,235
Net Present Value (NPV)
Net Present Value
Gross Profitability Index
Net Profitability Index
= Present Value of Cash Inflows - Value of Cash Outflows
Rs.11,235 - 10,000 = Rs.l,235
= Rs.1235
=
Present Value of Cash Inflows
Initial Cash Outlays
Rs. 11,235 = 1.1235
Rs.IO,OOO
= Gross Profitability Index - 1.0
= 1.1235 - 1.0
= 0.1235
The Profitability Index indicates less than one, the project is not beneficial and should not be accepted.
20. Capital Budgeting
Illustration: 16
661
There are two mutually exclusive projects under active consideration of a company. Both the
projects have a life of 5 years and have initial cash outlays of Rs. 1,00,000 each. The company pays tax at
50% rate and the maximum required rate of the company has been given as 10%. The straight line method
of depreciation will be charged on the projects. The projects are expected to generate a net cash inflow
before taxes as follows :
Year Project X Project Y
Rs. Rs.
1 40.000 60,000
2 40,000 30,000
3 40,000 20,000
4 40,000 50,000
5 40,000 50,000
With the help of the above given information you are required to calculate:
(a) The Pay-back Period of each project
(b) The Average Rate of Return for each project
(c) The Net Present Value and Profitability Index for each project
(d) The Internal Rate of Return for each project
On the basis of your calculations advise the company which project it should accept giving reasons.
Solution:
Calculation of Net Income and Net Cash Flows after Taxes
Project Cash Flows Depreciation Income before Taxes 50% Net Net Cash
before Taxes Taxes Income Inflow after Taxes
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
X 40,000 20,000 20,000 10,000 10,000 30,000
40,000 20,000 20,000 10,000 10,000 30,000
40,000 20,000 20,000 10,000 10,000 30,000
40,000 20,000 20,000 10,000 10,000 30,000
40,000 20,000 20,000 10,000 10,000 30,000
Y 60,000 20,000 40,000 20,000 20,000 40,000
30,000 20,000 10,000 5,000 5,000 25,000
20,000 20,000 0 0 0 20,000
50,000 20,000 30,000 15,000 15.000 35,000
50,000 20,000 30,000 15,000 15,000 35,000
(a) Calculation of Pay-back Period:
Pay-back Period
Cash Outlays =-------- Annual Cash Inflows
Rs.l,OO,OOO
Project X = = 3 years 4 months
Rs.30,000
Project Y = Rs. 40,000 + 25,000 + 20,000 = Rs. 85,000 for 3 years and the remaining amount of Rs.
15,000 (i.e., Rs. 1,00,000 - Rs. 85,000) will be recovered during the fourth year. The total
amount realized during the 4th year is Rs. 35,000. Therefore the amount of Rs. 15,000 can
be recovered in 5 months and 4 days
Thus, the pay-back period of project Y will be 3 years 5 months and 4 days.
21. 662 A Textbook of Financial Cost and Management Accounting
(b) Calculation of Average Rate of Return (ARR):
In this method we need an average income of the two projects and their average investment outlays:
Average Income of Project X =
=
=
Average Income of Project Y =
=
Total Income of 5 years
5
Rs. 10,000 + 10,000 + 10,000 + 10,000 + 10,000
Rs.50,000
5
= Rs. 10,000
5
Rs. 20,000 + 5,000 + 0 + 15,000 + 15,000
Rs.55,000
5
5
= Rs.ll,ooo
Average Investment for both Project X and Project Y
Rs. 1,00,000
= - Rs.50,000
2
The Average Rate of Return for
Rs. 10,000
Project X = =20%
Rs.50,000
Rs. 11,000
Project Y = = 22%
Rs.50,000
From the above analysis it follows that project Y is superior to project X as it gives 22% average rate of return
ItS against only 20% average rate of return from project X.
(c) Calculation of Net Present Value (NPV) :
Project X
The Present value of one rupee of an annuity for 5 years at 10% rate of interest is 3.791.
Thus, present value of an annuity of Rs.30,000 for 5 years at 10% rate is Rs.30,000 x 3,791 =
Less,' Cash Out lays
Net Present Value
Profitability Index
Project Y
Net Cash Flow
1
Rs.
40,000
25,000
20,000
35,000
35,000
Rs. 1,13,730
Rs. 1,00,000
Rs. 13,730
Rs. 1,13,730 = = 1.137
=
=
Rs. 1,00,000
Present Value Factor
at 10%
2
0.909
0.826
0.751
0.683
0.621
Present Value
(1 x 2)
3
36,630
20,650
15,020
23,905
21,735
22. Capital Budgeting
Total Present Value
Less : Cash Outlays
Net Present Value (NPV)
Profitability Index
=
Rs.I,17,670 = = 1.177
Rs.l,OO,OOO
(d) Calculation of Internal Rate of Return (IRR):
1,17,670
1,00,000
17,670
663
IRR is the rate which when applied to discount the cash flow makes the Net Present Value equal to zero. So IRR
of the project X will be :
Project X : There is constant cash inflow of Rs. 30,000 for 5 years. The nearest discount factor for this flow can
be obtained by dividing the cash outlays of Rs. 1,00,000 by Rs. 30,000 which comes to 3.33
(Le., Rs. 1,00,000 + Rs. 30,000).
Referring to the present value of annuity table in the annexure (Table A - 4). We find that the nearest discount
factor on the 5 year row is 3.352 which corresponds to a discount rate of 15%. But since 3.333 is lower than 3.352,
the actual rate should be between 15% and 16%. To obtain the actual rate of discount, the interpretation will be done
as follows:
Present value required
Present value at 15% for }
Rs.30,ooo (Le., 3.352 x 30,000)
Present value @ 16 % for }
Rs.30,ooo (Le., 3274 x 30,000)
The actual rate of discount in this way will be :
= 15%=[t%X
Rs. 1,00,000
1,00,560
98,220
560 ]
2,340
= 15% + 0.24 = 15.24%
Differences
Rs.560 }
Rs.2,340
1%
Project Y : In the case of project Y the cash inflow stream is uneven and so the trial and error'method wiII be
used to find out the actual rate of discount.
Let us begin with 16% rate of discount. The present value will be
Cash Flow
1
Rs.
40,000
25,000
20,000
35,000
35,000
Present Value
Factor at 16%
2
0.862
0.743
0.641
0.552
0.476
Total Present Value =
Present Value
(1 x 2) = 3
Rs.
34,480
18,580
12,820
19,320
16,660
Rs. 1,01,860
So the total present value is higher than the cash outlay, therefore to make it equal to Rs. 1,00,000, higher rate
of discount should be used. Therefore let us calculate the present value at 18% discount rate which read as follows:
23. 664 A Textbook of Financial Cost and Management Accounting
Cash Flow
1
Rs.
40,000
25,000
20,000
35,000
35,000
Present Value
Factor at 18%
2
0.847
0.718
0.609
0.516
0.437
Total Present Value =
Present Value
(1 x 2) = 3
Rs.
33,880
17,950
12,180
18,060
15,090
Rs.97,16O
The amount of total value at 18% discount rate is, thus, lower than the cash outlay and therefore a rate lower
than 18% is needed to make the NPV equal to Zero. This actual rate can be now, determined with the help of the
process of interpolation as follows :
Rs. Difference
Present value required 1,00,000
J 1,860 Present value at 16% 1,01,860 2%
4,700
Present Value at 18% 97,160
In this way the actual rate of discount will be :
= 1,86OJ 16% = + 2% x ---
[
4,700
= 16% + 0.79 = 16.79%
The Internal Rate of Return Project X has been found out to be 15.24% whereas the IRR of Project Y is 16.79%.
Thus, Project Y should be accepted and project X rejected.
Precisely Project Y is recommended by the IRR method, NPV method, PI method and IRR method. Project X
is recommended by Pay-back Period Method. However, it should be noted that Pay-back Period Method is not
theoretically sound method.
QUESTIONS
I. I. What do you understand by Capital Budgeting?
2. Discuss briefly the principles and characteristics of capital budgeting.
3. State the different techniques of selecting capital budgeting proposals.
4. What do you mean by Average Rate of Return?
5. What is Pay-back Method? State its advantages and limitations.
Write Short Notes on :
(a) Net Present Value Method
(b) Profitability Index
(c) Internal Rate of Return
(d) Discounted Pay-back Period Method
(e) Average Rate of Return
(f) Reciprocal Pay-back Period Method
6. What is the importance of Capital Budgeting?
7. State the objectives of Capital Budgeting.
8. Explain the process of Capital Budgeting.
9. Explain the different types of Capital Budgeting Proposals.
10. What do you understand by Net Present Value Method? State its advantages and disadvantages.
II. Chose the Correct Answer :
I. Fixed Assets are those which are of a
(a) Fixed (b) Current
nature
(c) Acid (d) Liquid
24. Capital Budgeting
2. The simplest capital budgeting technique is
(a) Net Present Value Method
(b) Pay-back Period Method
(c) Internal Rate of Return Method
(d) Average Rate of Return Method
665
3. is the rate which equates the present value of expected future cash flows with the cost of the investment.
(a) Average Rate of Return
(b) Discounted Rate of Return
(c) Internal Rate of Return
(d) Time Adjusted Rate of Return
4. is the relationship that exists between the present value of net cash inflows and the present values of cash
outflows.
(a) Profitability Index
(b) Distribution of Capital
(c) Discounted Benefit-Cost Ratio
(d) Cut-off Point
5. While evaluating capital investment proposals, the time value of money is considered in the case of
(a) Pay-back method (b) Discount Cash Flow Method
(c) Accounting Rate of Return Method (d) Net Present Value Method
6. The return after the pay-off period is not considered in case of
(a) Internal rate of Return Method (b) Net Present Value Method
(c) Pay-back Period Method (d) Accounting Rate of Return Method
7. Depreciation is included in cost in case of
(a) Average Rate of Return Method (b) Accounting Rate of Return Method
(c) Pay-back Period Method (d) Present Value Index Method
8. The Cash flows on account of operations are presumed to have been reinvested at the cut-off rate in case of ----
(a) Net Present Value Method (b) Pay-back Period Method
(c) Internal Rate of Return Method (d) Discounted Cash Flow Method
9. The technique of long-term planning for proposed capital outlays, and their financing is termed as ----
(a) Capital Budgeting (b) Cash Budgeting
(c) Sales Budgeting (d) Revenue Budgeting
10. The Minimum Rate of Return expected of a capital investment project is termed as -----
(a) Single Point Rate (b) Cut-off Rate
(c) Normal Rate (d) Both a and b
11. is the annual average yield on a project
(a) Internal Rate of Return (b) Cut-off Rate
(c) Accounting Rate of Return (d) None of the above
12. Capital budgeting is also known as ----
(a) Investment Decision Making (b) Planning Capital Expenditure
(c) Capital Expenditure Decisions (d) All the above
13. Capital Investment Decisions are generally ----
(a) Irreversible (b) Reversible (c) Recurring (d) Constant
14. Profitability index is also termed as -----
(a) Benefit Cost Ratio (b) Liquidity Ratio
(c) Turnover Ratio (d) Solvency Ratio
15. Internal Rate of Return and ---are the same
(a) Time Adjusted Rate of Return (b) Average Rate of Return
(c) Accounting Rate of Return (d) Profitability Index
[Ans: (I) Fixed (2) Pay-back Period Method (3) Internal Rate of Return (4) Profitability Index (5) Discounted Cash flow
Method (6) Pay-back Period Method (7) Accounting Rate of Return Method (8) Discounted Cash Flow Method (9)
Capital Budgeting (10) Both a and b (11) Accounting Rate of Return (12) All the above (13) Irreversible (14) Benefit
Cost Ratio (15) Time Adjusted Rate of Return)
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
(1) Calculate the pay-back periods of the following projects each requiring a cash outlays of Rs.I,OO,OOO. Suggest which
projects are acceptable if the standard pay-back period is 5 years:
25. 666
Year
1
2
3
4
5
Project A
30,000
30,000
30,000
30,000
30,000
Cash Inflows
A Textbook of Financial Cost and Managemelll Accoullling
Project B
30,000
40,000
20,000
10,000
5,000
[Ans : Pay-back period: Project A - 3.33 years, Project B - 4 years. Both Project A and Project B are acceptable]
(2) From the following data calculate: (1) Net Present Value (2) Internal Rate of Return and (3) Pay-back Period for the
following projects. Assume a required rate of return of 10% and a 50% tax rate. Firm has a policy of charging depreciation on
diminishing balance method. No capital gain taxes are assumed:
M N
Initial Cash outlay Rs. 1,00,000 Rs. 1,40,000
Salvage Value Nil 20,000
Earning before Depreciation and Taxes :
Year
1 25,000 40,000
2 25,000 40,000
3 25,000 40,000
4 25,000 40,000
5 25,000 40,000
Expected Life 5 years 5 years
(3) A company has to choose one of the following mutually exclusive projects. Both the projects will be depreciated on a
straight line basis. The firm's cost of capital is 10% and the tax rate is 50%. The before tax cash flows are:
(4)
0 J 2 3 4 5
X - Rs. 20,0004,200 4,800 7,000 8,000 2,000
Y - Rs. 15,0004,200 4,500 4,000 5,000 1,000
Which project should the firm accept, if the following criteria are used?
(a) Pay-back Period (b) Internal Rate of Return
(c) Net Present Value (d) Profitability Index
The cash flow streams for four alternative investment A, B, C, and Dare:
Year A B C
0 2,00,000 3,00,000 2,10,000
I 40,000 40,000 80,000
2 40,000 40,000 60,000
3 40,000 40,000 80,000
4 40,000 40,000 60,000
5 40,000 40,000 80,000
6 40,000 30,000 60,000
7 40,000 30,000 40,000
8 40,000 20,000 40,000
9 40,000 20,000 40,000
10 40,.QOO 20,000 40,000
Calculate the (a) Pay-back Period (b) Net Present Value
(d) Profitability Index.
D
3,20,000
2,00,000
20,000
2,00,000
50,000
(c) Internal Rate of Return and
(5) Atlanda Footwear is considering the purchase of a new leather stitching machine to replace an existing machine. The
existing machine has a book value of Rs. 20,000 and a salvage value of Rs. 30,000. It can be used for 5 more years at the end of which
its salvage value would be nil. The new machine cost Rs. 80,000. It is expected to bring an annual saving of Rs. 30,000 in operating
costs. The depreciation rate on both the machines will be 33 113 % on the written down value method. The new machine will fetch a
salvage value of Rs.50,OOO after 5 years. The tax rate for the firm is 60%.
What is the Internal Rate of Return of the replacement proposal?
(6) AVS Ltd is considering the purchase of a new machine for Rs. 1,20,000. It has a life of 4 years and an estimated scrap
value of Rs. 20,000. The machine will generate an extra revenue of Rs. 4,00,000 P.A. and have additional operating cost of Rs.
3,20,000 P.A. The company cost of capital is 20% and tax rate 50%. Should the machine be purchased?
[Ans : Yes, NPV Rs. 23,486]
26. Capital Budgeting 667
(7) William & Co. has to choose one of the two alternative machines. Calculate the Pay-back Period and suggest the
profitable machine;
Machine X Machine Y
Cost of Machine Rs. 2,00,000 2,50,000
Working Life years 5 5
Profit before tax :
1st Year 60,000 80,000
2nd Year 70,000 1,00,000
3rd Year 80,000 80,000
4th Year 60,000 70,000
5th Year 40,000 60,000
Rate of Income Tax 50% 50%
[Ans : Pay-back period, Machine x - 2.69 years, Y - 2.67 years, Machine y is better]
(8) Following data relate to five independent investment projects :
Projects Initial Outlay Annual Cash Inflows
P 10,00,000 2,50,000
Q 2,40,000 24,000
R 1,84,000 30,000
S 11,500 4,000
T 80,000 12,000
Life in Years
8
15
20
5
10
Assume a 10% required rate of return and a 50% tax rate. Rank these five investment projects according to each of the
following criteria :
(1) Pay-back Period
(2) Accounting Rate of Return
(3) Net Present Value Index
(4) Internal Rate of Return
(9) X Y Z Ltd. Company is considering the purchase of a machine. Two machines P and Q, each costing Rs.50,ooO, are
available. Earning after taxes are expected to be as under:
Year Machine Machine Discount Factor
P Q at /0%
Rs. Rs. Rs.
I 15,000 5,000 0.9091
2 20,000 15,000 0.8264
3 25,000 20,000 0.7513
4 15,000 30,000 0.6830
5 10,000 20,000 0.6209
Evaluate the two alternatives according to NPV method (a discount of 10% is to be used). Which machine should be
selected? Why?
[Ans: Pay-back period P - 2'6 years; Q - 3.33 years; NPV - P - Rs. 15,385; Q 14,865; profitability Index - P - 1,308; Q
- 1,297; P is better.)
(10) (a) A project of Rs. 40,00,000 yielded annually a profit of Rs. 6,00,000 after depreciation) 12~% and is subject to
income tax @ 50%, you are required to calculate pay-back period. (b) No-Project is acceptable unless the yield is 10% cash inflow~
of a certain project along with cash outflows are given below:
Year Outflows
Rs.
o
3,00,000
I
60,000
2
3
4
5
You are required to calculate Net-Present value
[Ans : (a) Pay-back period 5 years. (b) Net present value 17,772.]
Inflows
Rs.
40,000
60,000
1,20,000
1,60,000
60,000
80,000 (being salvage value
at the end of 5 years)
27. 668 A Textbook of Financial Cost and Management Accounting
(11) SS & Co. Ltd. is considering investing in a project requiring a capital outlay of Rs. 2,00,000. Forecast for annual
income after deprecialion but before tax is as follows :
Year Rs.
1 1,00,000
2 1,00,000
3 8,0000
4 80,000
5 40,000
Depreciation may be taken as 20% on original cost and taxation at 50% of net income. You are required to evaluate the
project according to each of the following methods :
a) Pay-back method
b) Rate of Return on Original Investment method
c) Discounted Cash Flow Method taking cost of capital as 10%
d) Net Present Value Index Method and
e) Internal Rate of Return Method
[Ans : (a) Pay-back period is 2.25 years
(b) Rate of return on original investment Method 20%
(c) Rate of return on average investment method 40%
(d) Discounted cash flow method Rs. 1.08,130
(e) Net present value index 154%
(f) Internal rate of return method 2.5]
(12) AVS & Co. Ltd. is contemplating the purchase of machine. Two machines P and Q are available; each machine costing
Rs. 5,00,000. In comparing the profitability of the machines, a discount rate of 10% is to be used. Earnings after taxation are expected
to be as under :
Year
1
2
3
4
5
Machine P
Rs.
1,50,000
2,00,000
2,50,000
1,50,000
1,00,000
Cashjlow
Machine Q
Rs.
50,000
1,50,000
2,00,000
3,00,000
2,00,000
Indicate which machine would be more profitable investment using the various methods of ranking investment
proposals.
[Ans: (I) Pay-back period P - 2 'Is years, Q - 3 '/' years; machine P is better.
(2) Return on Investment method
Machine P - 28% : Q - 32%; Machine Q is better
(3) Net Present Value method
Machine P - Rs 1,53,850; Q - Rs. 1,48,650; Machine P is better.)
(13) The life of a machine which costs Rs. 1,20.000 is estimated 5 years. Its salvage value is estimated at Rs. 20,000 at the
end of the fifth year. The earnings after taxes (before depreciation) are estimated as given below;
Year Rs.
1
2
3
4
5
Calculate: (a) Rate of Return on Original Investments
(b) Earnings per (Rupee) unit of investment
(c) Average Rate of Return on Original Investments
(d) Average Rate of Return on Average Investments
[Ans: (a) 158% (b) Rs. 158% (c) 31%
10,000
60,000
90,000
80,000
70,000
(d) 76%]
28. Capital Budgeting 669
(14) A company has an investment opportunity cashing Rs. 40,000 with the following expected net cash flow (Le., after tax
and before deprecation) :
Year
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Net· cash flow Rs.
7,000
7,000
7,000
7,000
7,000
8,000
10,000
15,000
10,000
4,000
Using 10% as the cost of capital (rate of discount) determine the following:
(a) Pay-back period
(b) Net present value at 10% discounting factor
(c) Profitability Index at 10% discounting factor
(d) Internal rate of return with the help of 10% discounting factor and 15% discounting factor
[Ans: (a) 5.62 years (b) Rs. 8,961 (c) 1.22 (d) 14.70%]
(IS) Calculate the Pay-back period, Average Rate of Return and Net Present Value for a Project which requires an initial
outlays of Rs. 10,000 and generates year ending cash flows of Rs. 6,000; Rs. 3,000; Rs. 2,000 and Rs. 5,000; and Rs.
5,000 from the end of the first year to the end of fifth year. The required rate of return is 10% and pays tax at 50% rate.
The project has a life of five years and depredated on straight line basis:
Year
1
2
3
4
5
Discounting factor at /0%
0.909
0.826
0.751
0.683
0.621
[Ans: Pay-back period - 3.43 years; ARR - 22%; NPV - 1,768].
000