C6c Alcohols
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This document discusses alcohols, including ethanol and higher alcohols. It provides the general formula for higher alcohols as CnH2n+1OH and explains how to write molecular and displayed formulas for alcohols with up to five carbon atoms. Two methods for producing ethanol are described: fermentation of glucose by yeast and hydration of ethene using phosphoric acid as a catalyst. Key conditions for fermentation and advantages of each method are also outlined.
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Industrial uses of ethene
Ethene has two main industrial uses. It is used to accelerate the ripening of fruits like bananas and citrus fruits. It is also used to manufacture plastics through polymerization. Ethene undergoes polymerization to create polyethene, which is used to make various plastic items like bottles, bins, and food packaging. Ethene can also be converted into other chemicals like vinyl chloride and styrene, which polymerize to form polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polystyrene plastics respectively. These plastics have various applications and are replacements for materials like rubber, steel, and glass. Ethene is also used to produce chemicals like ethylene glycol for antifreeze and
Ethanol
Ethanol can be produced through two processes: hydration using ethene, steam, and a catalyst; or fermentation using yeast and renewable resources like sugar. Hydration produces ethanol through the chemical reaction of ethene and steam, while fermentation involves yeast converting sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Fermentation has the advantage of using renewable plant materials as the raw input, whereas hydration requires non-renewable crude oil.
Ethene presentation
Ethene is a colorless gas with the formula C2H4 that is mainly produced through the cracking of petroleum products and natural gas. It undergoes characteristic alkene reactions like addition and oxidation. Ethene is an important industrial chemical used to produce polymers like polyethene, polyvinyl chloride, and polystyrene that are used to make various plastic products, as well as in other applications like fruit ripening and as an antifreeze component.
Alcohols
Ethanol can be formed through the reaction of ethene and steam or the catalytic addition of steam to ethene. Ethanol combusts, producing carbon dioxide and water. The combustion of larger hydrocarbons requires more oxygen and is less complete, producing a yellow flame. Ethanol has several industrial and commercial uses, including as a solvent, in alcoholic drinks and industrial methylated spirits, and as a fuel or fuel additive when mixed with gasoline.
Petrochemicals
This document discusses petrochemicals and their production and uses. It begins by explaining that petrochemicals are derived mainly from petroleum and other fossil fuels or renewable sources. It then describes the three primary petrochemical groups - olefins, aromatics, and synthetic gas - and lists some key petrochemicals like ethylene, propylene, benzene, and xylenes. The document provides details on the production and downstream derivatives of important petrochemicals and how they are used to make various plastics, polymers, solvents, and other industrial chemicals.
Poly(chloroethene) (polyvinyl chloride)
Poly(chloroethene), also known as polyvinyl chloride or PVC, is the second most widely used plastic after poly(ethylene). It has a wide variety of uses due to its ability to be formulated with different additives and molecular masses, making it suitable for both rigid and flexible applications. Some major uses of PVC include pipes, wiring/cable insulation, packaging, bottles, and construction materials. PVC is manufactured through a multi-step process involving the production of 1,2-dichloroethane from ethylene, followed by cracking of 1,2-dichloroethane to produce chloroethylene monomer, and finally polymerization of the chloroethylene monomer to
Alcohol production- (1)
This document discusses the production of alcohol through fermentation and distillation. It begins by explaining that fermentation involves yeast breaking down sugar in a solution into carbon dioxide and alcohol. It then describes two main types of distillation - pot still distillation and patent still distillation. Pot still distillation involves heating a fermented liquid in copper pots, allowing alcohol and water vapors to rise and be condensed separately. Patent still distillation is a continuous process using two tall towers to more efficiently separate alcohol and water vapors.
Power alcohol
Power alcohol is a mixture of 80% Petrol + 20%
Ethanol + Small quantity of Benzene. It is used for
the generation of power. The Chemical formula of
power alcohol is CnH2n+1 OH.
Recommended
Industrial uses of ethene
Ethene has two main industrial uses. It is used to accelerate the ripening of fruits like bananas and citrus fruits. It is also used to manufacture plastics through polymerization. Ethene undergoes polymerization to create polyethene, which is used to make various plastic items like bottles, bins, and food packaging. Ethene can also be converted into other chemicals like vinyl chloride and styrene, which polymerize to form polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polystyrene plastics respectively. These plastics have various applications and are replacements for materials like rubber, steel, and glass. Ethene is also used to produce chemicals like ethylene glycol for antifreeze and
Ethanol
Ethanol can be produced through two processes: hydration using ethene, steam, and a catalyst; or fermentation using yeast and renewable resources like sugar. Hydration produces ethanol through the chemical reaction of ethene and steam, while fermentation involves yeast converting sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Fermentation has the advantage of using renewable plant materials as the raw input, whereas hydration requires non-renewable crude oil.
Ethene presentation
Ethene is a colorless gas with the formula C2H4 that is mainly produced through the cracking of petroleum products and natural gas. It undergoes characteristic alkene reactions like addition and oxidation. Ethene is an important industrial chemical used to produce polymers like polyethene, polyvinyl chloride, and polystyrene that are used to make various plastic products, as well as in other applications like fruit ripening and as an antifreeze component.
Alcohols
Ethanol can be formed through the reaction of ethene and steam or the catalytic addition of steam to ethene. Ethanol combusts, producing carbon dioxide and water. The combustion of larger hydrocarbons requires more oxygen and is less complete, producing a yellow flame. Ethanol has several industrial and commercial uses, including as a solvent, in alcoholic drinks and industrial methylated spirits, and as a fuel or fuel additive when mixed with gasoline.
Petrochemicals
This document discusses petrochemicals and their production and uses. It begins by explaining that petrochemicals are derived mainly from petroleum and other fossil fuels or renewable sources. It then describes the three primary petrochemical groups - olefins, aromatics, and synthetic gas - and lists some key petrochemicals like ethylene, propylene, benzene, and xylenes. The document provides details on the production and downstream derivatives of important petrochemicals and how they are used to make various plastics, polymers, solvents, and other industrial chemicals.
Poly(chloroethene) (polyvinyl chloride)
Poly(chloroethene), also known as polyvinyl chloride or PVC, is the second most widely used plastic after poly(ethylene). It has a wide variety of uses due to its ability to be formulated with different additives and molecular masses, making it suitable for both rigid and flexible applications. Some major uses of PVC include pipes, wiring/cable insulation, packaging, bottles, and construction materials. PVC is manufactured through a multi-step process involving the production of 1,2-dichloroethane from ethylene, followed by cracking of 1,2-dichloroethane to produce chloroethylene monomer, and finally polymerization of the chloroethylene monomer to
Alcohol production- (1)
This document discusses the production of alcohol through fermentation and distillation. It begins by explaining that fermentation involves yeast breaking down sugar in a solution into carbon dioxide and alcohol. It then describes two main types of distillation - pot still distillation and patent still distillation. Pot still distillation involves heating a fermented liquid in copper pots, allowing alcohol and water vapors to rise and be condensed separately. Patent still distillation is a continuous process using two tall towers to more efficiently separate alcohol and water vapors.
Power alcohol
Power alcohol is a mixture of 80% Petrol + 20%
Ethanol + Small quantity of Benzene. It is used for
the generation of power. The Chemical formula of
power alcohol is CnH2n+1 OH.
Production of ethanol
1. Ethanol can be produced from various sources including sugary and starchy crops through fermentation. Common feedstocks include corn, sugarcane, wheat, and cellulosic biomass.
2. Ethanol is produced through fermentation of sugars by yeast. Starch from crops must first be converted to sugars before fermentation. New technologies allow production from non-edible cellulosic sources.
3. Ethanol has various uses including as a fuel additive or substitute for gasoline, as well as a solvent. While it can reduce greenhouse gas emissions compared to gasoline, ethanol also has disadvantages including lower energy content than gasoline.
Alcohol fermentation
This document discusses alcohol fermentation, which is a biological process where sugars are converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide by yeasts. Key steps include preparing a fermentation medium with sugars, starches or cellulosic materials as substrates; using organisms like yeast and bacteria; and ideal conditions of temperature, pH, and time. The process yields ethanol as the primary product along with carbon dioxide and yeast biomass as byproducts. Ethanol is then recovered through distillation and has various industrial and consumer uses.
Power alcohol from agricultural waste
Power Alcohol from
Corn
Sugarcane
Molasses
Potato peels
Sulphite liquor
Advantages
Disadvantages
Acetone and butanol fermentation
1. Acetone-butanol fermentation is a process that uses Clostridium bacteria to produce acetone and butanol from glucose through anaerobic fermentation.
2. Clostridium acetobutylicum and Clostridium beijerinckii are commonly used species that produce a 3:6:1 ratio of acetone, butanol, and ethanol.
3. Historically this fermentation process was used commercially until the 1970s to produce acetone and butanol, which are used as solvents and in producing synthetic rubbers, lacquers, and explosives.
Microbial production of solvents
This document summarizes microbial production of various solvents like ethanol, acetone, butanol, and glycerol. It describes the common uses of solvents and details the processes of ethanol production through both petrochemical and biological fermentation methods. The biological fermentation process involves steps like saccharification, liquefaction, milling, fermentation, and distillation. It also discusses the advantages of using bacteria like Z. mobilis and C. ljungdahlii over yeast for ethanol production, as well as the production methods for acetone, butanol, and glycerol.
Production of ethanol from different sources
The document discusses the production of ethanol from various sources. It begins by defining ethanol as a colorless, flammable liquid with the chemical formula C2H5OH. It then discusses the history of ethanol production dating back 9,000 years in China. The document outlines the main raw materials used like saccharine and starchy materials. It also discusses the key microorganisms involved in fermentation like yeast and bacteria. The three main generations of ethanol production are described along with differences between them and industrial production methods. Advantages like reduced greenhouse gases and disadvantages like lower energy content compared to petroleum are highlighted.
Fermentation
Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substrates through enzyme action, typically extracting energy from carbohydrates without oxygen. It is used to preserve foods through lactic acid production and make alcoholic beverages. Key products include ethanol, lactic acid, hydrogen gas, and others. It is an ancient metabolic pathway common to bacteria and eukaryotes that takes place in anaerobic environments.
Bioethanol and its Production
Bioethanol is produced through the fermentation of sugars from various agricultural sources like corn, sugarcane, and cellulosic materials. It has benefits as a renewable fuel that can reduce dependence on crude oil and emissions. There are three main steps in production: fermentation of sugars into ethanol, distillation to separate ethanol from water, and dehydration to purify the ethanol. Lignocellulosic materials like wood and crop residues can also be broken down enzymatically to produce fermentable sugars for ethanol production, but this process is more complex than using easily accessible starch sources. Bioethanol shows potential as a cleaner burning alternative fuel but still faces challenges in efficiency and infrastructure compatibility compared to gasoline.
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Production of alcohol
This document provides information on the production of alcohol through fermentation. It discusses:
- Yeast and bacteria that are used as microorganisms for alcohol fermentation, depending on the raw material substrate. Common microorganisms include Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis.
- Raw materials that can be used for alcohol fermentation including sugary materials like glucose and sucrose, and starchy materials like wheat, rice, and maize.
- The fermentation process which typically takes 2-3 days under ideal conditions of pH 4.0-4.5 and temperatures rising from 21-27°C to 30-37°C.
- Glucose is converted
Assignment gct ii ethylene glycol and dextrose
Ethylene glycol is an organic compound that is mainly used to make polyester fibers and as antifreeze. It is odorless, colorless, and sweet-tasting. Ethylene glycol is produced from ethylene via the intermediate ethylene oxide. Ethylene oxide reacts with water to produce ethylene glycol according to the chemical equation provided. This reaction can be catalyzed by acids or bases and yields high amounts of ethylene glycol under acidic or neutral pH with excess water.
Acetone
Acetone is an organic compound with the formula (CH3)2CO. It is the simplest ketone. Acetone has a colorless, pungent odor and is miscible with water and many organic solvents. It is produced industrially via the cumene process, which involves oxidation of cumene. Other production methods include oxidation of isopropyl alcohol, hydrolysis of halogenated compounds, and fermentation. India's annual acetone production has increased in recent years and the country imports acetone to meet domestic demand. Major Indian producers include Reliance Industries and HPCL.
Industrial production of chemical solvents “Acetone”
This document discusses various types of chemical solvents including their classification and common uses. It focuses on acetone, describing its structure and various industrial production methods such as the cumene process, fermentation, and oxidation. Acetone is widely used as an industrial and laboratory solvent as well as in products like nail polish remover due to its ability to dissolve many compounds.
Ethanol production
In this presentation I'm explaining about the production and processing of Ethanol from agricultural wastes and usage of ethanol as a fuel for engines. Also explained about the advantages and disadvantages of ethanol process and an detailed explanation about ethanol process.
Toluene and its industrial applications
Toluene aromatic hydrocarbon solvent is a solvent in paints, lacquers, thinners, glues, correction fluid, carbon nanotubes and nail polish remover used as an octane booster in gasoline fuels
Application of organic chemistry in everydaylife & in forensic science
what is chemistry? types of chemistry? use of organic compounds in every day life ? application of orgainc compounds in forensic science
7.1 tetrahedral carbon alcohols 7.1
This document summarizes information about alcohols including their classification, physical properties, and uses. It lists common alcohols like methanol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, and butan-1-ol. Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of carbon atoms attached to the hydroxyl group. Their physical properties make them generally soluble in water but less so in nonpolar solvents like cyclohexane. Common uses include producing alcoholic drinks through fermentation and as fuels when mixed with gasoline.
Increase Your Distillery's Alcohol Yields
AlcoGain is a biocide useful to improve alcohol (ethanol) yields during molasses fermentation by yeast. It kills and controls bacterial infection and contamination of fermenting wash.
Methanol project data bases
This presentation provides an overview of methanol. Methanol is the simplest alcohol, consisting of a methyl group linked to a hydroxyl group. It is a light, volatile, colorless, flammable liquid with an odor similar to ethanol. Methanol is more toxic than ethanol. Its principal uses are in organic synthesis, as a fuel, solvent, and antifreeze. Methanol production involves three main steps: synthesis gas production, catalytic conversion of synthesis gas, and distillation of raw methanol. Commercialization of methanol synthesis from CO2 is driven by political and environmental goals of reducing CO2 emissions, which can only be achieved if hydrogen is produced from renewable sources and clean CO2 can be produced economically.
Bioethanol Production
This document discusses bioethanol production and technology. It begins by introducing bioethanol and explaining its importance as an alternative energy source due to depletion of fossil fuels and environmental concerns. The main steps of bioethanol production are described as fermentation, distillation and dehydration. Common raw materials like sugar, starch and cellulose sources are identified. Microorganisms used in fermentation and different production technologies like sugar fermentation and dry/wet milling processes are outlined. Applications include fuel blending and uses. Advantages include renewability while disadvantages include lower efficiency than petroleum and land use impacts.
Radiation
In alpha decay, the nucleus loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons, decreasing the atomic number by 2 and mass number by 4. In beta decay, a neutron changes to a proton and an electron is ejected, increasing the atomic number by 1 while keeping the mass number the same. In gamma decay, only energy is emitted with no change to the atomic or mass number.
C4e Detergents
Detergents are made up of several key ingredients that allow them to clean effectively. The active detergent does the cleaning by breaking up the bonds between dirt and fibers. Water softeners are added to remove hard water ions that can form insoluble salts and reduce cleaning ability. Rinse agents enhance the rinsing process and prevent spotting. Different detergents are formulated for different applications like laundry, dishwashing, or hand washing based on the types of soils they are designed to remove and conditions they will be used in.
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Production of ethanol
1. Ethanol can be produced from various sources including sugary and starchy crops through fermentation. Common feedstocks include corn, sugarcane, wheat, and cellulosic biomass.
2. Ethanol is produced through fermentation of sugars by yeast. Starch from crops must first be converted to sugars before fermentation. New technologies allow production from non-edible cellulosic sources.
3. Ethanol has various uses including as a fuel additive or substitute for gasoline, as well as a solvent. While it can reduce greenhouse gas emissions compared to gasoline, ethanol also has disadvantages including lower energy content than gasoline.
Alcohol fermentation
This document discusses alcohol fermentation, which is a biological process where sugars are converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide by yeasts. Key steps include preparing a fermentation medium with sugars, starches or cellulosic materials as substrates; using organisms like yeast and bacteria; and ideal conditions of temperature, pH, and time. The process yields ethanol as the primary product along with carbon dioxide and yeast biomass as byproducts. Ethanol is then recovered through distillation and has various industrial and consumer uses.
Power alcohol from agricultural waste
Power Alcohol from
Corn
Sugarcane
Molasses
Potato peels
Sulphite liquor
Advantages
Disadvantages
Acetone and butanol fermentation
1. Acetone-butanol fermentation is a process that uses Clostridium bacteria to produce acetone and butanol from glucose through anaerobic fermentation.
2. Clostridium acetobutylicum and Clostridium beijerinckii are commonly used species that produce a 3:6:1 ratio of acetone, butanol, and ethanol.
3. Historically this fermentation process was used commercially until the 1970s to produce acetone and butanol, which are used as solvents and in producing synthetic rubbers, lacquers, and explosives.
Microbial production of solvents
This document summarizes microbial production of various solvents like ethanol, acetone, butanol, and glycerol. It describes the common uses of solvents and details the processes of ethanol production through both petrochemical and biological fermentation methods. The biological fermentation process involves steps like saccharification, liquefaction, milling, fermentation, and distillation. It also discusses the advantages of using bacteria like Z. mobilis and C. ljungdahlii over yeast for ethanol production, as well as the production methods for acetone, butanol, and glycerol.
Production of ethanol from different sources
The document discusses the production of ethanol from various sources. It begins by defining ethanol as a colorless, flammable liquid with the chemical formula C2H5OH. It then discusses the history of ethanol production dating back 9,000 years in China. The document outlines the main raw materials used like saccharine and starchy materials. It also discusses the key microorganisms involved in fermentation like yeast and bacteria. The three main generations of ethanol production are described along with differences between them and industrial production methods. Advantages like reduced greenhouse gases and disadvantages like lower energy content compared to petroleum are highlighted.
Fermentation
Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substrates through enzyme action, typically extracting energy from carbohydrates without oxygen. It is used to preserve foods through lactic acid production and make alcoholic beverages. Key products include ethanol, lactic acid, hydrogen gas, and others. It is an ancient metabolic pathway common to bacteria and eukaryotes that takes place in anaerobic environments.
Bioethanol and its Production
Bioethanol is produced through the fermentation of sugars from various agricultural sources like corn, sugarcane, and cellulosic materials. It has benefits as a renewable fuel that can reduce dependence on crude oil and emissions. There are three main steps in production: fermentation of sugars into ethanol, distillation to separate ethanol from water, and dehydration to purify the ethanol. Lignocellulosic materials like wood and crop residues can also be broken down enzymatically to produce fermentable sugars for ethanol production, but this process is more complex than using easily accessible starch sources. Bioethanol shows potential as a cleaner burning alternative fuel but still faces challenges in efficiency and infrastructure compatibility compared to gasoline.
Why Choose an Enzymatic Biodiesel Process
Learn about the pros of an enzymatic biodiesel production technology over a chemical-based process. Included is a brief overview of Sunho Biodiesel Corp.'s enzymatic biodiesel process.
Production of alcohol
This document provides information on the production of alcohol through fermentation. It discusses:
- Yeast and bacteria that are used as microorganisms for alcohol fermentation, depending on the raw material substrate. Common microorganisms include Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis.
- Raw materials that can be used for alcohol fermentation including sugary materials like glucose and sucrose, and starchy materials like wheat, rice, and maize.
- The fermentation process which typically takes 2-3 days under ideal conditions of pH 4.0-4.5 and temperatures rising from 21-27°C to 30-37°C.
- Glucose is converted
Assignment gct ii ethylene glycol and dextrose
Ethylene glycol is an organic compound that is mainly used to make polyester fibers and as antifreeze. It is odorless, colorless, and sweet-tasting. Ethylene glycol is produced from ethylene via the intermediate ethylene oxide. Ethylene oxide reacts with water to produce ethylene glycol according to the chemical equation provided. This reaction can be catalyzed by acids or bases and yields high amounts of ethylene glycol under acidic or neutral pH with excess water.
Acetone
Acetone is an organic compound with the formula (CH3)2CO. It is the simplest ketone. Acetone has a colorless, pungent odor and is miscible with water and many organic solvents. It is produced industrially via the cumene process, which involves oxidation of cumene. Other production methods include oxidation of isopropyl alcohol, hydrolysis of halogenated compounds, and fermentation. India's annual acetone production has increased in recent years and the country imports acetone to meet domestic demand. Major Indian producers include Reliance Industries and HPCL.
Industrial production of chemical solvents “Acetone”
This document discusses various types of chemical solvents including their classification and common uses. It focuses on acetone, describing its structure and various industrial production methods such as the cumene process, fermentation, and oxidation. Acetone is widely used as an industrial and laboratory solvent as well as in products like nail polish remover due to its ability to dissolve many compounds.
Ethanol production
In this presentation I'm explaining about the production and processing of Ethanol from agricultural wastes and usage of ethanol as a fuel for engines. Also explained about the advantages and disadvantages of ethanol process and an detailed explanation about ethanol process.
Toluene and its industrial applications
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This document summarizes information about alcohols including their classification, physical properties, and uses. It lists common alcohols like methanol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, and butan-1-ol. Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary based on the number of carbon atoms attached to the hydroxyl group. Their physical properties make them generally soluble in water but less so in nonpolar solvents like cyclohexane. Common uses include producing alcoholic drinks through fermentation and as fuels when mixed with gasoline.
Increase Your Distillery's Alcohol Yields
AlcoGain is a biocide useful to improve alcohol (ethanol) yields during molasses fermentation by yeast. It kills and controls bacterial infection and contamination of fermenting wash.
Methanol project data bases
This presentation provides an overview of methanol. Methanol is the simplest alcohol, consisting of a methyl group linked to a hydroxyl group. It is a light, volatile, colorless, flammable liquid with an odor similar to ethanol. Methanol is more toxic than ethanol. Its principal uses are in organic synthesis, as a fuel, solvent, and antifreeze. Methanol production involves three main steps: synthesis gas production, catalytic conversion of synthesis gas, and distillation of raw methanol. Commercialization of methanol synthesis from CO2 is driven by political and environmental goals of reducing CO2 emissions, which can only be achieved if hydrogen is produced from renewable sources and clean CO2 can be produced economically.
Bioethanol Production
This document discusses bioethanol production and technology. It begins by introducing bioethanol and explaining its importance as an alternative energy source due to depletion of fossil fuels and environmental concerns. The main steps of bioethanol production are described as fermentation, distillation and dehydration. Common raw materials like sugar, starch and cellulose sources are identified. Microorganisms used in fermentation and different production technologies like sugar fermentation and dry/wet milling processes are outlined. Applications include fuel blending and uses. Advantages include renewability while disadvantages include lower efficiency than petroleum and land use impacts.
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Radiation
In alpha decay, the nucleus loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons, decreasing the atomic number by 2 and mass number by 4. In beta decay, a neutron changes to a proton and an electron is ejected, increasing the atomic number by 1 while keeping the mass number the same. In gamma decay, only energy is emitted with no change to the atomic or mass number.
C4e Detergents
Detergents are made up of several key ingredients that allow them to clean effectively. The active detergent does the cleaning by breaking up the bonds between dirt and fibers. Water softeners are added to remove hard water ions that can form insoluble salts and reduce cleaning ability. Rinse agents enhance the rinsing process and prevent spotting. Different detergents are formulated for different applications like laundry, dishwashing, or hand washing based on the types of soils they are designed to remove and conditions they will be used in.
Light
The document summarizes key aspects of different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum including radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma rays. It also discusses properties that apply across the spectrum such as all waves traveling at the speed of light, interference and diffraction effects. Additionally, it covers topics in waves and optics including reflection, refraction, lenses, sound waves, and seismic waves.
Unit 1 4 Bonding Notes
The document provides information on bonding, including ionic, covalent, and metallic bonding. It discusses key concepts such as the octet rule, dot-cross diagrams, ion formation, ionic radii trends, lattice energies, and Born-Haber cycles. Polarization of ionic bonds is explained by the differing electronegativity of cations and anions. Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms to gain stable electron configurations.
C5h Ionic Equations (Precipitation Reactions)
Precipitation reactions involve mixing two aqueous solutions together which results in the formation of an insoluble solid product; the ions from each solution interact and if they form an insoluble compound it will appear cloudy in the solution. Most precipitation reactions are extremely exothermic as they involve the formation of ionic bonds between oppositely charged ions. Tests can be done using silver nitrate or barium nitrate solutions to detect the presence of chloride, bromide, iodide or sulfate ions based on the color of precipitate formed.
C6b Redox Reactions
Rusting is an example of a redox reaction where:
1. Iron loses electrons and is oxidized.
2. Oxygen gains electrons and is reduced.
3. For rusting to occur, iron needs to be in contact with both oxygen and water, and acids or salts can catalyze the reaction.
Electomagnets
1) When a current passes through a copper wire in a magnetic field, it induces a voltage in the wire due to electromagnetic induction.
2) An alternating current generator uses a rotating coil in a magnetic field to generate a current, where the direction of the current reverses as the coil rotates.
3) Transformers use the principle of electromagnetic induction to change the voltage of an alternating current - a step-up transformer increases voltage through more turns on the secondary coil, while a step-down transformer decreases voltage.
C4h How Pure Is Our Water
This document discusses water resources, water purification processes, and water quality testing. It describes various water sources like lakes, rivers, and aquifers. It explains how water is used in industry for cooling, solvents, and as a raw material. It also lists common pollutants in water sources like nitrates, lead, and pesticides. The purification process removes insoluble solids through sedimentation, filters out smaller particles, and uses chlorination to kill microbes. Testing identifies ions that cause water hardness and determines which halide ions are present through precipitation reactions.
Electronics
1) Electrostatic charges involve the attraction and repulsion of objects based on whether they have equal or opposite charges. Charges are used in photocopiers, dust precipitators, and defibrillators.
2) Electricity involves the flow of electrons through conductors. The resistance of materials can change based on factors like temperature. Common circuit components include resistors, diodes, and capacitors.
3) Digital and analog signals are used to transmit information. Digital signals use 1s and 0s while analog signals have continuously varying values. Multiplexing and sampling allow more data to be transmitted.
C6g Natural Fats And Oils
Natural fats and oils can be either solid or liquid depending on their saturation. They are esters made from glycerol reacting with fatty acids. Saturated fats have only single carbon-carbon bonds while unsaturated fats contain at least one double carbon-carbon bond. More unsaturated a fat is, the more bromine water it can decolorize. Vegetable oils are often hydrogenated to make them less runny for products like margarine, but this increases their saturated fat content which is less healthy. Vegetable oils can also be used to make biodiesel fuel.
C5d Titrations Higher
This document describes the process and principles of acid-base titration. It discusses:
1. The equipment used including burettes, conical flasks, and indicators.
2. The method of slowly adding an alkali to an acid while swirling and monitoring the indicator until the endpoint is reached.
3. Calculations that can be done such as determining moles, concentration, and mass based on the titration results.
4. How a titration curve shows pH changing as a function of alkali added, with the endpoint at neutralization.
Space
The document discusses several topics related to astronomy and space, including:
- The formation of elements like hydrogen in the Big Bang and later fusion in stars that led to heavier elements like carbon.
- How satellites orbit Earth due to centripetal force balancing gravitational attraction, with examples of low polar orbits and geostationary orbits.
- How planets orbit the Sun due to centripetal force balancing gravitational attraction.
- How the Sun will evolve over time from its current stable phase into a red giant and later a white dwarf or neutron star/black hole.
Motion
Forces add up as vectors, so a 10N force to the left and an 8N force to the right result in a 2N force to the left. If the net force is zero, the object will stay at rest or move at a constant velocity. If there is a net force, the object will accelerate according to F=ma. Projectiles follow parabolic paths and take the same time to fall as dropped objects. Kinetic energy equals half the mass times the velocity squared.
C6f Hardness Of Water
Calcium and magnesium ions dissolved in water are what cause water hardness by interfering with the ability of soap to lather. There are two types of hardness: temporary, caused by bicarbonate ions and removed by boiling; and permanent, caused by sulfate ions. Permanent hardness can be removed by adding washing soda to precipitate calcium carbonate or through ion exchange columns which swap calcium ions for sodium ions. Limescale is calcium carbonate buildup and can be removed using acidic limescale removers which dissolve it through a reaction that forms calcium and carbonate ions in solution.
C4g Nanochemistry
The discovery of buckminsterfullerene in 1985 showed that carbon has a third allotrope beyond just diamond and graphite. Harry Kroto collaborated with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley to use a laser-vaporization technique that produced buckyball molecules made of 60 carbon atoms arranged in a hollow soccer ball structure. Confirmation required isolating enough of the new molecules to obtain spectra and diffraction data matching the predicted structure. This breakthrough discovery earned Kroto, Curl, and Smalley the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
C4b Reacting Masses
This document provides instructions for an experiment to determine the amount of copper oxide produced from the decomposition of copper carbonate. Students are asked to weigh reactants and products, perform calculations to determine the theoretical and actual yields, and suggest reasons for any differences between the actual and theoretical yields. The key ideas are:
1) Mass is conserved in chemical reactions as matter cannot be created or destroyed.
2) Heating copper carbonate produces copper oxide according to the word equation provided.
3) Percentage yield can reveal how close the actual yield was to the theoretical yield.
As Chemistry Prep 2.2 Intermediate Bonding And Polarity
This document provides exercises for students to complete to help them understand the chemistry topic of intermediate bonding and bond polarity. It includes exercises to define key terms, find electronegativity values of elements, determine percentages of ionic and covalent character in bonds, draw molecules indicating partial charges, and describe an experiment to test if a compound is polar. Students are instructed to attempt the problems after the topic is covered in class and to submit completed answers at the start of the next lesson.
Energy
Heat is transferred through particles vibrating (conduction), air rising when hot (convection), and radiation being absorbed and reflected. Insulation in walls traps air which is an insulator, while different methods like passive solar heating and fossil fuels generate heat energy through various processes. When a solid melts it changes state at a constant temperature.
C5f Equilibria
1) Reactions can reach equilibrium when the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate, resulting in no change in concentration of reactants and products over time.
2) To increase the yield of products in a reaction at equilibrium, conditions must be changed to shift the equilibrium towards the product side, such as increasing temperature, pressure, or reactant concentration.
3) The Haber process produces ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen gases at high pressure and temperature in order to shift the reversible reaction towards more ammonia products. Removing ammonia also drives the reaction forward.
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Bio alcohol
Ethanol is produced by fermenting sugars and starches from biomass feedstocks like grains, cellulosic materials, and waste products. The production process involves milling the feedstock, cooking it to produce fermentable sugars, fermenting the sugars with yeast to produce ethanol, distilling the ethanol to increase its concentration, and denaturing the ethanol before blending it with gasoline. Ethanol has benefits as a fuel such as being renewable, having a high octane rating, and being suitable for high compression engines. However, it is not suitable for use in diesel engines due to differences in their combustion processes.
C16 alcohols and carboxylic acids
Here are the answers to the quick check questions:
1. Raw materials required for ethanol production by fermentation are carbohydrates such as starch or sugar, water, yeast and a source of enzymes.
2. The chemical equations for the fermentation of sugar are:
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide
Chemistry of organic compounds
The document discusses several organic compounds including chloroform, ethyl alcohol, and acetone. It provides detailed information on the properties, production methods, reactions, and uses of chloroform and ethyl alcohol. For chloroform, it describes its molecular structure, history of discovery, industrial production through heating chlorine with methane, and past and current uses such as an anesthetic and refrigerant. For ethyl alcohol, it outlines its chemical structure, production through fermentation of sugars by yeast as well as from ethylene, common reactions like ester formation, and its flammability.
04 petrochemical precursor ethylene and propylene
Petrochemical precursors like ethylene and propylene are important building blocks that are derived from petroleum and natural gas. Ethylene and propylene are two of the most important olefins and are primarily produced through steam cracking of hydrocarbons in oil refineries. Steam cracking involves heating hydrocarbon feeds in the presence of steam to high temperatures to produce olefins and other petrochemicals through pyrolysis. Ethylene and propylene go on to form the backbone of many useful products like plastics, solvents, and fibers through further processing.
04petrochemicalprecursorethyleneandpropylene 150315124937-conversion-gate01
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Petrochemical precursors like ethylene and propylene are important building blocks derived from petroleum and natural gas. Ethylene and propylene are produced through steam cracking of hydrocarbons in oil refineries and chemical plants. Steam cracking involves heating hydrocarbon feeds with steam in furnaces at high temperatures to produce olefins and other petrochemicals. Ethylene and propylene are highly reactive gases that are used to produce many useful end products and materials through addition reactions and polymerization.Ethanol
Ethanol is commonly used as a biofuel and can be produced from plants containing sugar or starch, such as corn, sugarcane, or cellulosic crops. It is made through the fermentation of sugars with yeast and is the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic drinks. Ethanol provides advantages as a fuel in that it is renewable, produces fewer greenhouse gas emissions than gasoline, and burns more cleanly. However, ethanol also has some disadvantages like a lower energy content than gasoline and production requiring significant land and water resources.
Ethanol
this slide is about green diesel ethanol or ethyl alcohol.much details are included with effort. feel free to edit the slides.
Lec 4
The document describes the process for manufacturing ethanol from molasses. Key steps include:
1) Molasses from sugar industries is stored and diluted in storage and dilution tanks.
2) Yeast is cultivated and stored to ferment the molasses into an 8-10% alcohol solution.
3) Distillation processes including beer stills, aldehyde stills, rectifying columns, and anhydrous stills are used to separate and purify the ethanol into 95% and 100% concentrations.
4) Products include ethanol for industrial use, portable ethanol, and denatured ethanol for fuel. Heat integration and energy recovery are important to the efficiency of the process.
Chemistry carbon compounds (1)
This document presents information about carbon compounds and alcohol. It begins with an introduction to alcohols including their general formula, functional group, and examples of the first four alcohols. It then discusses the industrial production of ethanol through hydration and fermentation processes. Physical and chemical properties of ethanol such as solubility, volatility, combustion reactions, and dehydration are described. The document concludes by covering uses of alcohol and the negative health effects of misusing or abusing alcohol.
Chemistry carbon compounds (1)
This document presents information about carbon compounds and alcohol. It begins with an introduction to alcohols including their general formula, functional group, and examples of the first four alcohols. It then discusses the industrial production of ethanol through hydration and fermentation processes. Physical and chemical properties of ethanol such as solubility, volatility, combustion reactions, and dehydration are described. The document concludes by covering uses of alcohol and the negative health effects of misusing or abusing alcohol.
Chemistry carbon compounds (1)
This document presents information about carbon compounds and alcohol. It begins with an introduction to alcohols including their general formula, functional group, and examples of the first four alcohols. It then discusses the industrial production of ethanol through hydration and fermentation processes. Physical and chemical properties of ethanol such as solubility, volatility, combustion reactions, and dehydration are described. The document concludes by covering uses of alcohol and the negative health effects of misusing or abusing alcohol.
Chemistry carbon compounds (1)
This document presents information about carbon compounds and alcohol. It begins with an introduction to alcohols including their general formula, functional group, and examples of the first four alcohols. It then discusses the industrial production of ethanol through hydration and fermentation processes. Physical and chemical properties of ethanol such as solubility, volatility, combustion reactions, and dehydration are described. The document concludes by covering uses of alcohol and the negative health effects of misusing or abusing alcohol.
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Ethanol is produced through a four-step fermentation process involving grinding plant materials, dissolving sugars, fermentation with microbes like yeast, and distillation. It can be made from crops like corn or sugarcane. While ethanol burns cleaner than gasoline, it is less energy dense, corrosive, and requires significant land for crop production. The main producers of ethanol in India use sugarcane or maize in a biological fermentation process. Ethanol has various industrial and fuel uses in India.
Organic chemistry ( incomplete) C3.5 Heba Saey
This document discusses homologous series and provides examples of homologous series for alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, and carboxylic acids. It also summarizes methods for producing ethanol, including by fermentation of carbohydrates by yeast and by reaction of ethene with steam. The pros and cons of each production method are outlined. Finally, it briefly discusses the effects of alcohol on the body and society.
Industrial production of diethyl ether
Diethyl ether can be prepared both in laboratories and on an industrial scale by the process called acid ether synthesis.
Ethanol is mixed with a strong acid like sulfuric acid (H2SO4).This strong acid dissociates in the aqueous environment producing H3O+(hydronium ions).
Bio alcohal
The document discusses the production of bio-alcohol (ethanol) from various raw materials through fermentation. It describes the ethanol production process which involves milling the raw material, sterilization, cooking, cooling, fermentation using yeast, distillation to separate ethanol from other compounds, dehydration to remove water, denaturing to make ethanol unfit for human consumption, and blending with gasoline. Common feedstocks for ethanol production include sugars, starches, and cellulose-containing materials. The byproducts of ethanol production like distiller's grains and carbon dioxide also have market value. Ethanol offers advantages as an automobile fuel but is not suitable for diesel engines due to differences in combustion.
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This document provides information on organic chemistry concepts including homologous series, alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, carboxylic acids, production of ethanol via fermentation and distillation, fractional distillation, effects of alcohol consumption, production of ethene and ethanoic acid, dehydration of ethanol, esters and their uses in perfumes and flavorings, soap production, hydrogenation of vegetable oils, and polyunsaturated oils. Key details are presented in a clear and organized manner with relevant examples.
C16 alcohols and carboxylic acids
Alcohols and carboxylic acids are organic compounds that contain hydroxyl (-OH) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups respectively. This chapter discusses the properties, reactions and uses of ethanol and ethanoic acid. Ethanol is produced industrially from ethene or by fermentation of carbohydrates using yeast. Ethanoic acid is prepared by oxidizing ethanol and is used to make plastics, drugs, and vinegar. Esters are formed from the reaction of alcohols and carboxylic acids and have characteristic fruity smells used in perfumes.
C16 alcohols and carboxylic acids
The document discusses alcohols and carboxylic acids. It describes the key features of alcohols including their general formula, functional group, names and properties. Ethanol is described as the most important alcohol. Carboxylic acids are also discussed, with ethanoic acid as an example. Methods for producing ethanol through fermentation of carbohydrates and from ethene are summarized.
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A food chain shows that plants are eaten by herbivores like rabbits, which are then eaten by carnivores like lions. Producers like plants make their own food and are the first link in the food chain, while consumers eat other organisms. Herbivores eat plants, carnivores eat meat, predators eat other animals, and prey are eaten by predators. Decomposers break down dead organisms. Humans, eagles and lions are at the top of food pyramids as they are rarely preyed upon by other animals.
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The document defines key terms related to food chains and food webs, including biomass, producer, consumer, herbivore, carnivore, predator, prey, decomposer. It provides an example food chain starting with plants as producers, then herbivores, primary and secondary consumers, and ending with a carnivore or tertiary consumer at the top. A diagram shows how energy transfers through a pyramid-shaped food web from producers to different consumer levels.
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The document discusses key concepts related to food chains and biomass. It defines biomass as the total mass of a living thing excluding water. Biomass is composed of glucose and other substances produced through photosynthesis. A food chain diagrams how organisms feed on each other in an ecosystem, with producers like plants generating their own food, and consumers like herbivores and carnivores eating other organisms or animals. Decomposers feed on dead plants and animals. An example food chain is given of grass being eaten by a grasshopper and further up the chain.
Food chains
A food chain shows how each living thing gets its food, with arrows indicating what eats what. Carnivores are meat-eating animals like cats, lions, and snakes. Producers like plants make their own food through photosynthesis. Consumers eat other organisms, and can be herbivores that eat plants or predators that hunt other animals. Prey are the animals or plants that are hunted by predators.
Food chains project
The document defines key terms related to food chains and ecosystems:
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2) A food chain describes a series of living things connected by predation, with each organism eating the one below it.
3) Producers are plants that use sunlight to produce their own food.
4) Consumers are herbivores, zooplankton and carnivores that eat other organisms.
5) Herbivores eat only plants, carnivores eat meat, and predators hunt other animals for food.
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A food chain shows that plants are eaten by herbivores like rabbits, which are then eaten by carnivores like lions. Producers like plants make their own food and are the first link in the food chain, while consumers eat other organisms. Herbivores eat plants, carnivores eat meat, predators eat other animals, and prey are eaten by predators. Decomposers break down dead organisms. Humans, eagles and lions are at the top of food pyramids as they are rarely preyed upon by other animals.
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The document describes various food chains that exist on Earth and a hypothetical food chain on Mars. On Earth, producers like plants undergo photosynthesis at the bottom of the food chain, while consumers like herbivores and carnivores eat other organisms or animals higher up the chain. A food chain in the ocean includes phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish, and blue whales. The hypothetical Martian food chain positions Mares bacteria at the bottom, which are eaten by Mares aliens that feed on rocks. These aliens are preyed upon by the apex predator Sky beasts.
Sunni and nish foód¦¬presentaion
Biomass refers to the total mass of living organisms in an ecosystem, excluding water. Producers in a food chain are always plants, which produce their own food through photosynthesis. A food chain represents the predator-prey relationships between species in an ecosystem, with producers like plants being eaten by consumers such as snails, fish and ducks, and with carnivores preying on other animals and serving as predators for their prey.
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This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts related to alcohols and halogenoalkanes. It discusses:
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2. Details the properties and reactions of alcohols, including combustion, reactions with sodium, oxidation, substitution, and how primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols differ in reactivity.
3. Explains properties and reactions of halogenoalkanes such as hydrolysis, elimination, substitution, and how a test can identify primary, secondary, and tertiary halogenoalkanes.
4.
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This document provides an overview of organic reaction mechanisms. It begins by explaining that chemical reactions can be studied in detail by examining how electrons move during the reaction, known as the reaction mechanism. It then discusses different types of organic reactions like addition, elimination, and substitution. The document also categorizes reagents as nucleophiles or electrophiles. It explains how single bonds can break through homolytic or heterolytic fission. Finally, it discusses free radical chemistry and how CFCs catalyze the destruction of stratospheric ozone through a free radical chain reaction.
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The document discusses solar energy, including what it is, how it is harnessed, where it comes from, its advantages and disadvantages, and some of its uses. Solar energy comes from the sun and can be used to generate electricity or heat water. It is harnessed using solar panels that convert sunlight into electrical energy or use it to heat fluids. While a renewable source of energy, solar power has initial costs and requires large land areas for panels, and production of panels can release toxic byproducts if not properly handled.
Future Transport Nishan And Sunny
Alternative fuels are fuels other than conventional fossil fuels like oil, coal, and natural gas. Some common alternative fuels include biodiesel, ethanol, hydrogen, and electricity from batteries, fuel cells, solar, or wind power. Alternative fuels are needed because fossil fuel resources are running out and renewable alternatives are needed. Battery electric vehicles use electric motors powered by rechargeable battery packs instead of gasoline engines. They have less pollution than gas cars but slower charging times and speeds. Solar cars are powered by solar panels that convert sunlight directly into electrical energy for electric motors. They produce zero emissions but are expensive and can only be used during the day. Fuel cells produce electricity through chemical reactions without combustion, which can be used to power electric
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P5e Satellite Communication
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P5e Satellite Communication
Satellite communications use microwaves to transmit and receive information. A different frequency is used to send information back to Earth because the ionosphere interacts differently with different microwave frequencies, allowing some frequencies to pass through more easily. The ionosphere can reflect or refract radio waves depending on their frequency. Diffraction allows radio waves to reach areas they could not travel to in a straight line from their source. The size of any gaps or obstructions affects the amount of diffraction, with larger gaps producing less diffraction and smaller gaps producing more diffraction.
P5g Dispersion Notes
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Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
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Chapter 6
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Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
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- 1. C6c Alcohols Foundation Ethanol is just one type of alcohol Molecular Formula: Displayed Formula: C2H5OH Higher Alcohols have the general formula CnH2nOH You need to be able to use this to: 1. write the molecular formula of an alcohol with up to five carbon atoms 2. draw the displayed formulae of alcohols containing up to five carbon atoms Methanol Ethanol Propanol Butanol Pentanol
- 3. Making Ethanol by Fermentation What conditions are needed for fermentation? 1. A glucose and yeast solution are heated at _______oC. This is called the ________________ temperature. 2. No _____________ is present 3. ______________ in the yeast convert glucose into carbon dioxide and ethanol 4. The mixture is ________________ to remove the ethanol Note that there must be water present (fermentation will not occur with dry glucose powder and dry yeast) Higher only Higher only 3 Very Important Questions 1. Why do we need to use a temperature between 25 oC and 50 oC ? Too Low = Too High = 2. Why must there be no oxygen present? 3. What is the advantage of making ethanol in this way? Uses of Ethanol • alcoholic beverages; • solvent (industrial methylated spirits); • fuel for cars.
- 4. Making Ethanol by the Hydration of Ethene • Hydration means ___________________ • Adding water to _______________ produces ethanol Method Ethene and steam are passed over a hot ______________ called phosphoric acid Higher only C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH What are the advantages and disadvantages of making ethanol by hydration compared to making it by fermentation ? Advantages Disadvantages 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3.
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