C6g Natural Fats And Oils
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Natural fats and oils can be either solid or liquid depending on their saturation. They are esters made from glycerol reacting with fatty acids. Saturated fats have only single carbon-carbon bonds while unsaturated fats contain at least one double carbon-carbon bond. More unsaturated a fat is, the more bromine water it can decolorize. Vegetable oils are often hydrogenated to make them less runny for products like margarine, but this increases their saturated fat content which is less healthy. Vegetable oils can also be used to make biodiesel fuel.
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Biodiesel is a cleaner-burning diesel replacement fuel made from vegetable oils and animal fats through a process called trans-esterification. It can be blended with petroleum diesel up to 20% without engine modifications. Biodiesel reduces emissions compared to petroleum diesel, though nitrogen oxide emissions may increase at higher blend levels. It has similar physical properties as diesel, operating in compression-ignition engines.
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Here is a brief overview on the chapter Fats and Oils for BPharma students. It is an organic chemistry topic. All the definitions along with chemical reactions are mentioned and explained in an easy way.
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World energy demands are rising while fossil fuel reserves are finite. Biodiesel is an alternative fuel that can help address these issues. It is made through a chemical process where vegetable oils or animal fats react with alcohol to produce fatty acid esters. This document discusses how biodiesel is made, its advantages over conventional diesel like reduced emissions, and potential sources like jatropha and honge oils. However, biodiesel also has disadvantages like poorer performance in cold weather. Overall, the document promotes biodiesel as a sustainable fuel option that can help reduce emissions and reliance on imported oil.
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Biodiesel is a clean-burning alternative fuel made from vegetable oils and animal fats through a chemical process called transesterification. Rudolf Diesel first ran an engine on peanut oil in 1900. Biodiesel production has increased, with soybeans being the primary feedstock in the US. It can be blended with petroleum diesel at any level and burns cleaner than petroleum diesel, but may have slightly higher NOx emissions and is less stable than petroleum diesel.
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Lipids
There are three main types of lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids. Triglycerides are the main type of fat in food and are composed of a glycerol molecule bonded to three fatty acid molecules. Fatty acids can vary in length and saturation level, with saturated fats having no double bonds between carbons and unsaturated/polyunsaturated fats having one or more double bonds. Animal fats like butter tend to be solid at room temperature due to higher saturation, while plant oils like olive oil remain liquid due to more unsaturated fatty acids.
Fats and Oils
Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, which are three fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone. Fats can be solid or liquid depending on the type and saturation of fatty acids present. The degree of saturation determines melting point, with higher saturation leading to higher melting points. Fats provide essential fatty acids and vitamin E, and antioxidants help prevent rancidity. Different fats influence texture, flavor, and have varying smoke points impacted by degree of heating and processing.
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Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, which are three fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone. Fats can be solid or liquid depending on the type and saturation of fatty acids present. The degree of saturation determines melting point, with higher saturation leading to higher melting points. Fats provide essential fatty acids and vitamin E, and antioxidants help prevent rancidity. Different fats influence texture, flavor, and have varying smoke points impacted by degree of heating and processing.
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Changes occur to fats during food processing and cooking. Heating fats can cause randomization of glyceride structure, dimer formation, cis-trans isomerization, and formation of conjugated fatty acids. Specific processes like hydrogenation, interesterification, and deodorization further impact fat composition. Deep frying is high heat cooking that promotes reactions like oxidation, leading to rancidity over time. Thermal properties like smoke point are important considerations for fat selection in cooking.
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1) Mass is conserved in chemical reactions as matter cannot be created or destroyed.
2) Heating copper carbonate produces copper oxide according to the word equation provided.
3) Percentage yield can reveal how close the actual yield was to the theoretical yield.
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Biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable fuel manufactured domestically from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant grease. ... Biodiesel is a liquid fuel often referred to as B100 or neat biodiesel in its pure, unblended form. Like petroleum diesel, biodiesel is used to fuel compression-ignition engines.
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Fossil fuels will soon be exhausted.
If we had replenish fuel sources, what direction should we go in?
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WHAT IS BIO-DIESEL?
Diesel fuel substitute produced from renewable sources.
It is manufactured from animal or vegetable fats and has physical properties very similar to petroleum diesel fuel.
It is non-toxic and biodegradable.
It can be combined with petroleum diesel at any level.
RUDOLF DIESEL SAYS-
"The use of vegetable
oils for engine fuels
may seem insignificant
today. But such oils
may become in course
of time as important as
petroleum and the
coal tar products of
the present time."
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Biodiesel reduces carbon dioxide exhaust emissions up to 80%.
Biodiesel produces 100% less SOx than petroleum.
Biodiesel reduces exhaust smoke (particulates) emissions up to 75%.
The smell of the biodiesel exhaust is far more pleasant.
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Changes occur to fats during food processing and cooking. Heating fats can cause randomization of glyceride structure, dimer formation, cis-trans isomerization, and formation of conjugated fatty acids. Specific processes like hydrogenation, interesterification, and deodorization further impact fat composition. Deep frying is high heat cooking that promotes reactions like oxidation, leading to rancidity over time. Thermal properties like smoke point are important considerations for fat selection in cooking.
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4. How a titration curve shows pH changing as a function of alkali added, with the endpoint at neutralization.
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The document provides information on bonding, including ionic, covalent, and metallic bonding. It discusses key concepts such as the octet rule, dot-cross diagrams, ion formation, ionic radii trends, lattice energies, and Born-Haber cycles. Polarization of ionic bonds is explained by the differing electronegativity of cations and anions. Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms to gain stable electron configurations.
C4g Nanochemistry
The discovery of buckminsterfullerene in 1985 showed that carbon has a third allotrope beyond just diamond and graphite. Harry Kroto collaborated with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley to use a laser-vaporization technique that produced buckyball molecules made of 60 carbon atoms arranged in a hollow soccer ball structure. Confirmation required isolating enough of the new molecules to obtain spectra and diffraction data matching the predicted structure. This breakthrough discovery earned Kroto, Curl, and Smalley the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Electomagnets
1) When a current passes through a copper wire in a magnetic field, it induces a voltage in the wire due to electromagnetic induction.
2) An alternating current generator uses a rotating coil in a magnetic field to generate a current, where the direction of the current reverses as the coil rotates.
3) Transformers use the principle of electromagnetic induction to change the voltage of an alternating current - a step-up transformer increases voltage through more turns on the secondary coil, while a step-down transformer decreases voltage.
C6f Hardness Of Water
Calcium and magnesium ions dissolved in water are what cause water hardness by interfering with the ability of soap to lather. There are two types of hardness: temporary, caused by bicarbonate ions and removed by boiling; and permanent, caused by sulfate ions. Permanent hardness can be removed by adding washing soda to precipitate calcium carbonate or through ion exchange columns which swap calcium ions for sodium ions. Limescale is calcium carbonate buildup and can be removed using acidic limescale removers which dissolve it through a reaction that forms calcium and carbonate ions in solution.
Space
The document discusses several topics related to astronomy and space, including:
- The formation of elements like hydrogen in the Big Bang and later fusion in stars that led to heavier elements like carbon.
- How satellites orbit Earth due to centripetal force balancing gravitational attraction, with examples of low polar orbits and geostationary orbits.
- How planets orbit the Sun due to centripetal force balancing gravitational attraction.
- How the Sun will evolve over time from its current stable phase into a red giant and later a white dwarf or neutron star/black hole.
C5h Ionic Equations (Precipitation Reactions)
Precipitation reactions involve mixing two aqueous solutions together which results in the formation of an insoluble solid product; the ions from each solution interact and if they form an insoluble compound it will appear cloudy in the solution. Most precipitation reactions are extremely exothermic as they involve the formation of ionic bonds between oppositely charged ions. Tests can be done using silver nitrate or barium nitrate solutions to detect the presence of chloride, bromide, iodide or sulfate ions based on the color of precipitate formed.
Energy
Heat is transferred through particles vibrating (conduction), air rising when hot (convection), and radiation being absorbed and reflected. Insulation in walls traps air which is an insulator, while different methods like passive solar heating and fossil fuels generate heat energy through various processes. When a solid melts it changes state at a constant temperature.
C5f Equilibria
1) Reactions can reach equilibrium when the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate, resulting in no change in concentration of reactants and products over time.
2) To increase the yield of products in a reaction at equilibrium, conditions must be changed to shift the equilibrium towards the product side, such as increasing temperature, pressure, or reactant concentration.
3) The Haber process produces ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen gases at high pressure and temperature in order to shift the reversible reaction towards more ammonia products. Removing ammonia also drives the reaction forward.
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Similar to C6g Natural Fats And Oils
Lipids (fixed oils and fats )
Lipids can be classified by their structure as simple lipids like fats and oils or complex lipids like phospholipids. They can also be classified based on whether they undergo hydrolysis in alkaline solutions. Lipids are made up of fatty acids and glycerol, forming triglycerides. Fats are usually saturated while oils contain some unsaturated fatty acids. Waxes differ from fats and oils in that they are esters of long-chain alcohols and fatty acids with higher melting points. Lipids serve important functions and have many applications, such as in soaps, foods, and cosmetics.
FOOD AND NON FOOD APPLICATIONS OF OILS AND FATS.pptx
Oils and fats form an important part of a healthy diet.
Structurally they are esters of glycerol with three fatty acids.
Chemically, they can be divided into four main types – saturated, cis-monounsaturated, cis-polyunsaturated and trans fatty acids.
n very broad terms, saturated fatty acids and trans fatty acids are solid at room temperature while the cis - unsaturates are liquid at room temperature.
Fats and oils
this slides will help to provide the better information about the role, properties, nutritive aspect of Fat and oil.
can be use by under graduate or post graduate students as well.
Storage lipids
Storage lipids like triglycerides are composed of fatty acids esterified to a glycerol backbone. They serve as energy stores. Animal fats and oils come from rendered animal tissues and secretions. Popular animal fats include lard, tallow, butter, and dairy oils. They are used in foods, soaps, lubricants and other products. Properties depend on fatty acid composition, with saturated fats usually solid at room temperature.
Fats, oils and detergents
FATS AND OILS- Fats and oils are triglycerides(triesters).They are made from glycerol and fatty acids.Fats are solids at room temperature whereas oils are liquids.Fatty acids present in fats and oils can be saturated or unsaturated.Fats and oils store energy and help to insulate the body, cushion and protect organs.
SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS- Synthetic detergents or soapless soaps are synthetic substances that are being increasingly employed as cleansing agents these days.
C1b Food Additives
Food additives are chemicals added to food to improve qualities like taste, texture or shelf life. There are four main types - colors, flavors, antioxidants and emulsifiers. Additives approved for use in the European Union are given an E-number identifying their category. Emulsifiers are used to combine oil and water into stable emulsions by having a water-loving head and oil-loving tail that prevent separation. Active packaging can respond to or release substances to improve quality or safety during storage, such as heating or cooling reactions in drink cans or substances that remove oxygen and inhibit microbial growth.
General lipids
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring, nonpolar and water-insoluble compounds that include fats, oils, waxes and other fatty substances. They serve important biological functions such as energy storage, cell signaling, and as structural components of cell membranes. Lipids can be classified as simple lipids like fatty acids, fats and oils, or compound lipids which contain additional functional groups. Fats are composed of triglycerides containing fatty acid chains that are saturated, while oils contain some unsaturated fatty acid chains, making them liquid at room temperature. Lipids play critical roles in the body and have a variety of industrial applications.
Lipids.pptx
Lipids are a diverse group of naturally occurring organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They include fats, oils, and waxes and serve important biological functions like energy storage, cell membrane structure, and transport of fat-soluble vitamins and hormones. Lipids are classified as simple lipids like triglycerides, compound lipids containing additional groups like phospholipids and glycolipids, or derived lipids like steroids. Fats and oils differ based on whether they contain saturated or unsaturated fatty acids. Important lipids discussed in more detail include castor oil, obtained from castor seeds, and chaulmoogra oil from various Hydnocarpus plants.
Castor beans
Castor oil comes from castor beans and contains around 50-55% oil. This oil is high in ricinoleic acid at over 85% and has properties like a low melting point that make it suitable for industrial use like biodiesel production. Castor oil has a high cetane number, which is a measure of how well a fuel will burn in a diesel engine, ranging from 45-65 for most biofuels but higher for castor oil. It is also relatively inexpensive compared to other oils, making it cost effective for biodiesel production despite ongoing research into other variables.
Fats and oil
This document discusses technology related to oils and fats. It defines oils and fats as lipids composed of triglycerides, which are esters of glycerol bonded to three fatty acid units. The main difference between oils and fats is that fats are solid at room temperature due to higher saturated fatty acid content, while oils are liquid due to higher unsaturated fatty acid content. The document outlines important properties and uses of oils and fats, including as prepared edible products, sources like animal fats and vegetable oils, production statistics, industrial uses, and identification methods based on physical and chemical characteristics.
Vegetable oil
Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are oils extracted from seeds, or less often, from other parts of fruits. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are mixtures of triglycerides. Soybean oil, rapeseed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of fats from seeds.
Castor beans
Castor oil comes from castor beans and contains over 85% ricinoleic acid, giving it unique properties that make it suitable for industrial use such as a high viscosity and low melting point. Castor oil has a high cetane number, which is desirable for diesel engines, and it is one of the lowest priced vegetable oils for biodiesel production. Research continues to evaluate castor oil further for biodiesel production due to its beneficial properties and low cost.
Learn Everything About Olive Oil.docx
The document discusses olive oil production and quality. It describes how olive oil is extracted using mechanical and chemical methods to produce grades like virgin, extra virgin, refined, and pomace olive oils. It also outlines various tests consumers can perform to verify the quality and purity of olive oil. Finally, it promotes Oliveoilsland as a reputable producer and supplier of the highest quality olive oil.
Food oil
This document discusses different types of cooking oils and their properties. It provides information on 7 common cooking oils - coconut oil, groundnut oil, sunflower oil, ricebran oil, flaxseed oil, olive oil, and palm oil. For each oil, it mentions their smoking points, which indicates the temperature at which the oil begins to break down. It also discusses the health benefits and recommended uses for different cooking methods like frying, sauteing, etc. The document further describes various testing methods used to analyze the characteristics of cooking oils, such as acid number, saponification value, and peroxide number.
Pharmaceutical application of fats and oils, saponification value and its pri...
Pharmaceutical application of fats and oils, saponification value and its pri...Hygia Institute of Pharmaceutical education and research
This document discusses the pharmaceutical application of fats and oils, specifically their saponification value and principle. It begins with definitions of fatty acids, lipids, and the principle that fats and oils are triglycerides formed from the esterification of fatty acids with glycerol. It then describes the physical and chemical properties of fats and oils, including hydrolysis and hydrogenation. A key point is that saponification is the hydrolysis of fats or oils under basic conditions to produce glycerol and fatty acid salts. The saponification value, which indicates the amount of alkali needed to convert a fat or oil to soap, is determined through a titration process. Fats and oils have variousVegetable Oils.ppt
Vegetable oils are stored in plants in organs like seeds and endosperm. They are mainly triglycerides composed of glycerol bonded to three fatty acids. Oils are classified by their level of unsaturation, measured by iodine value, with higher values indicating more unsaturated oils that dry more quickly. Oils are extracted from plants through processes like pressing and solvent extraction, then refined. Drying oils like linseed and tung oils dry to a film due to high unsaturation. Semi-drying oils include safflower, soybean, and sunflower oils. Non-drying oils for cooking include peanut, olive, and coconut oils. Palm and coconut oils also provide fats.
Lipids.pdf
Lipids include fats, oils, and waxes. Fats and oils are triglycerides composed of glycerol and three fatty acids. Fats are usually saturated and solid at room temperature, while oils are unsaturated and liquid. Fats and oils are extracted from plants through pressing or solvent extraction. Waxes also contain fatty acids but have higher molecular weight alcohols. Lipids have many applications including soaps, coatings, and supplements.
6.lipids full notes in pdf pharmacognosy and biochemistry
Lipids include fats, oils, and waxes. Fats and oils are triglycerides composed of glycerol and three fatty acids. Saturated fats from animal sources are solid at room temperature due to straight hydrocarbon chains that pack closely. Unsaturated plant oils are liquid due to double bonds that cause kinks in the chains and prevent close packing. Fixed oils are obtained from plants by expression or solvent extraction, while animal fats are separated by rendering. Lipids have many uses including soaps, coatings, and supplements.
Doctoral seminar
Fats and oils are most abundant lipids found in nature. They provide energy, insulate organs, and transport fat-soluble vitamins. Fats and oils are triglycerides composed of fatty acid units esterified to a glycerol backbone. They exist in both plant and animal sources and can be saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated depending on fatty acid composition. Different plant oils have varying concentrations and types of fatty acids that determine their nutritional properties and suitable uses.
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Ed and Matt
Photography derives from the Greek words for "light" and "to write" and the word was coined by Sir John Herschel in 1839. Early philosophers and mathematicians described the principles of the pinhole camera as early as the 5th century BC, though the first photographs were not made until combining several technical discoveries. Cameras are now widely used around the world to capture wonderful sights and are symbols of both paparazzi and human freedom and ingenuity.
Jose and me ri rocks!!!
The document defines key terms related to food chains and food webs, including biomass, producer, consumer, herbivore, carnivore, predator, prey, decomposer. It provides an example food chain starting with plants as producers, then herbivores, primary and secondary consumers, and ending with a carnivore or tertiary consumer at the top. A diagram shows how energy transfers through a pyramid-shaped food web from producers to different consumer levels.
Food chain.ppt amit and mary
A food chain shows that plants are eaten by herbivores like rabbits, which are then eaten by carnivores like lions. Producers like plants make their own food and are the first link in the food chain, while consumers eat other organisms. Herbivores eat plants, carnivores eat meat, predators eat other animals, and prey are eaten by predators. Decomposers break down dead organisms. Humans, eagles and lions are at the top of food pyramids as they are rarely preyed upon by other animals.
Jose and me ri rocks!!!
The document defines key terms related to food chains and food webs, including biomass, producer, consumer, herbivore, carnivore, predator, prey, decomposer. It provides an example food chain starting with plants as producers, then herbivores, primary and secondary consumers, and ending with a carnivore or tertiary consumer at the top. A diagram shows how energy transfers through a pyramid-shaped food web from producers to different consumer levels.
Hello im sirsak and im neeth ^ ^
The document discusses key concepts related to food chains and biomass. It defines biomass as the total mass of a living thing excluding water. Biomass is composed of glucose and other substances produced through photosynthesis. A food chain diagrams how organisms feed on each other in an ecosystem, with producers like plants generating their own food, and consumers like herbivores and carnivores eating other organisms or animals. Decomposers feed on dead plants and animals. An example food chain is given of grass being eaten by a grasshopper and further up the chain.
Food chains
A food chain shows how each living thing gets its food, with arrows indicating what eats what. Carnivores are meat-eating animals like cats, lions, and snakes. Producers like plants make their own food through photosynthesis. Consumers eat other organisms, and can be herbivores that eat plants or predators that hunt other animals. Prey are the animals or plants that are hunted by predators.
Food chains project
The document defines key terms related to food chains and ecosystems:
1) Biomass refers to dead plant and animal material that can be used as fuel.
2) A food chain describes a series of living things connected by predation, with each organism eating the one below it.
3) Producers are plants that use sunlight to produce their own food.
4) Consumers are herbivores, zooplankton and carnivores that eat other organisms.
5) Herbivores eat only plants, carnivores eat meat, and predators hunt other animals for food.
Food chain.ppt amit and mary
A food chain shows that plants are eaten by herbivores like rabbits, which are then eaten by carnivores like lions. Producers like plants make their own food and are the first link in the food chain, while consumers eat other organisms. Herbivores eat plants, carnivores eat meat, predators eat other animals, and prey are eaten by predators. Decomposers break down dead organisms. Humans, eagles and lions are at the top of food pyramids as they are rarely preyed upon by other animals.
Food chain with alice
The document describes various food chains that exist on Earth and a hypothetical food chain on Mars. On Earth, producers like plants undergo photosynthesis at the bottom of the food chain, while consumers like herbivores and carnivores eat other organisms or animals higher up the chain. A food chain in the ocean includes phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish, and blue whales. The hypothetical Martian food chain positions Mares bacteria at the bottom, which are eaten by Mares aliens that feed on rocks. These aliens are preyed upon by the apex predator Sky beasts.
Sunni and nish foód¦¬presentaion
Biomass refers to the total mass of living organisms in an ecosystem, excluding water. Producers in a food chain are always plants, which produce their own food through photosynthesis. A food chain represents the predator-prey relationships between species in an ecosystem, with producers like plants being eaten by consumers such as snails, fish and ducks, and with carnivores preying on other animals and serving as predators for their prey.
Unit 2 8 Alcohols And Halogenoalkanes Notes
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts related to alcohols and halogenoalkanes. It discusses:
1. The IUPAC system for naming organic compounds and provides examples of naming alcohols and halogenoalkanes.
2. Details the properties and reactions of alcohols, including combustion, reactions with sodium, oxidation, substitution, and how primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols differ in reactivity.
3. Explains properties and reactions of halogenoalkanes such as hydrolysis, elimination, substitution, and how a test can identify primary, secondary, and tertiary halogenoalkanes.
4.
Unit 2 9 Mechanisms Notes
This document provides an overview of organic reaction mechanisms. It begins by explaining that chemical reactions can be studied in detail by examining how electrons move during the reaction, known as the reaction mechanism. It then discusses different types of organic reactions like addition, elimination, and substitution. The document also categorizes reagents as nucleophiles or electrophiles. It explains how single bonds can break through homolytic or heterolytic fission. Finally, it discusses free radical chemistry and how CFCs catalyze the destruction of stratospheric ozone through a free radical chain reaction.
Solar Elyse And Jeong
The document discusses solar energy, including what it is, how it is harnessed, where it comes from, its advantages and disadvantages, and some of its uses. Solar energy comes from the sun and can be used to generate electricity or heat water. It is harnessed using solar panels that convert sunlight into electrical energy or use it to heat fluids. While a renewable source of energy, solar power has initial costs and requires large land areas for panels, and production of panels can release toxic byproducts if not properly handled.
Future Transport Nishan And Sunny
Alternative fuels are fuels other than conventional fossil fuels like oil, coal, and natural gas. Some common alternative fuels include biodiesel, ethanol, hydrogen, and electricity from batteries, fuel cells, solar, or wind power. Alternative fuels are needed because fossil fuel resources are running out and renewable alternatives are needed. Battery electric vehicles use electric motors powered by rechargeable battery packs instead of gasoline engines. They have less pollution than gas cars but slower charging times and speeds. Solar cars are powered by solar panels that convert sunlight directly into electrical energy for electric motors. They produce zero emissions but are expensive and can only be used during the day. Fuel cells produce electricity through chemical reactions without combustion, which can be used to power electric
Nuclear And Geothermal Neeth And Sirsak
Nuclear energy generates electricity by splitting or fusing atomic nuclei, releasing energy according to Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula. Geothermal energy taps heat from the earth's core to generate electricity. Both use heat to generate electricity, with nuclear providing low-cost, low-pollution power. France generates over 75% of its electricity from nuclear energy due to energy security policies. Geothermal energy is also used for district heating and bathing.
Wind Alice, Amit And Amy
Wind energy is a renewable source of energy that is harnessed using wind turbines located in wind farms. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy, with the turbine blades spun by wind currents that are ultimately driven by the sun. Wind power is being used increasingly all over the world, with wind farms established in locations like the UK and Australia to generate electricity from wind energy.
Biomass Harishan And Benji
Biomass is biological material from living or recently living organisms that can be used as an energy source. Examples of biomass include wood, trees, shrubs, crops, grasses, algae, and animal and food waste. Biomass is a renewable source of energy because it comes from sunlight that plants absorb to grow, and biomass can be regrown as it is used. Biomass is burned in boilers to produce steam that turns turbines and generates electricity.
P5e Satellite Communication
Satellite communications use microwaves to transmit and receive information. A different frequency is used to send information back to Earth because the ionosphere interacts differently with different microwave frequencies, allowing some frequencies to pass through more easily. The ionosphere can reflect or refract radio waves depending on their frequency. Diffraction allows radio waves to reach areas they could not travel to in a straight line from their source. The size of any gaps or obstructions affects the amount of diffraction, with larger gaps producing smaller diffraction and smaller gaps producing larger diffraction.
P5e Satellite Communication
Satellite communications use microwaves to transmit and receive information. A different frequency is used to send information back to Earth because the ionosphere interacts differently with different microwave frequencies, allowing some frequencies to pass through more easily. The ionosphere can reflect or refract radio waves depending on their frequency. Diffraction allows radio waves to reach areas they could not travel to in a straight line from their source. The size of any gaps or obstructions affects the amount of diffraction, with larger gaps producing less diffraction and smaller gaps producing more diffraction.
P5g Dispersion Notes
White light is made up of all colors. When entering a prism the different colors are refracted down by different amounts, with red being slowed the most and violet being slowed the least. This leads to a rainbow-like dispersion pattern.
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C6g Natural Fats And Oils
- 1. C6g Natural Fats and Oils • Natural fats and oils are important raw materials for the chemical industry e.g. they are used in • At room temperature __________ are solid and _________ are liquids Animal fats and oils Vegetable fats and oils lard (pork fat) olive oil blubber (whale fat) walnut oil ghee (butter oil) soya oil cod liver oil coconut oil What type of chemicals are fats and oils? • Animal and vegetable fats and oils are esters. • Fats and oils are made when an alcohol C1c Revision called glycerol reacts with fatty acids: Esters are made in the following reaction: alcohol + acid ester + water • In a saturated fat all of the carbon-carbon bonds are _________ bonds • An unsaturated fat or oil has at least one carbon-carbon ________ bond, C=C. Test for unsaturation (C=C): • The more bromine water the fat/oil Test = bromine water can decolourise the more Result = bromine water turns _______________ it is (more C=C). from orange to colourless
- 2. How is Margarine Made? Why are unsaturated fats healthier? • ______________ fats are better for our health • Vegetable oils are often more unsaturated Saturated fats increase the amount of cholesterol in the (lots of C=C) than animal fats and oils blood which can block up the • Unsaturation makes oils runny - too runny to spread arteries and increase the risk of heart disease • So, to make margarine from vegetable oils something must be done to make them less runny. Hydrogenation: • You can see above that the runny oil has hydrogen added to it to make it more saturated. This is called “hydrogenation”. A _____________ catalyst is used and it is carried out at about _____oC. • Not all of the C=C are hydrogenated because the oil would become too ___________ to spread. Advantage of hydrogenated Disadvantage of hydrogenated vegetable oils vegetable oils Although naturally unsaturated oils decrease cholesterol, when you hydrogenate them ____________ __________________________ __________________________ __________________________ What else are vegetable oils used for? Vegetable oils can be used to make___________________, an alternative to diesel from crude oil.
- 3. What is an emulsion? Revision of C1a Examples include: • Oils do not mix with water – they are _______________________. • But you can make an emulsion by ______________ the oil and water vigorously If there is _______ oil than water If there is _________ water than oil then the oil breaks up into tiny then the water breaks up into tiny droplets that disperse throughout droplets that disperse throughout the the water e.g. milk oil e.g. butter oil-in-water emulsion water–in-oil emulsion Making Soap from Vegatable Oil Revision C4 • Vegetable oils react with _____________________to produce a soap. • Natural fats and oils can be split up by hot sodium hydroxide solution to produce ___________ and _______________. • This process of splitting up natural fats and oils using sodium hydroxide solution is called ________________________. Higher Hydrolysis Reaction